' 


HOW  THE  UNITED  STATES 
BECAME  A  NATION 


BY 

JOHN  FISKE 


With  Illustrations 
and  Map 


GINN   &  COMPANY 

BOSTON   •  NEW  YORK  •   CHICAGO  •  LONDON 


COPYRIGHT,  1887, 1904 
BY  GINN  &  COMPANY 


ALL  EIGHTS  RESERVED 


CINN    &   COMPANY  •  PRO 
PRIETORS  •  BOSTON  •  U.S.A. 


£50 1 
F5 

< 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

THE  PERIOD  OF  WEAKNESS 5 

Conditions  of  American  progress.  Hamilton's  meas 
ures.  Whisky  insurrection.  Indian  War.  Rise  of 
parties.  "Citizen"  Genet.  Jay'streaty.  Troubles  with 
France.  Alien  and  sedition  laws.  Kentucky  and  Vir 
ginia  resolutions.  Death  of  Washington.  Downfall  of  . 
the  Federalist  party.  The  Louisiana  Purchase.  Ex 
ploration  of  Oregon.  The  Tripolitan  War.  Burr  and 
Hamilton.  Embargo. 

SECOND  WAR  WITH  GREAT  BRITAIN 75 

Strength  of  the  Republicans.  Declaration  of  war. 
Naval  victories.  The  war  in  the  Northwest.  The  war 
on  the  Lakes.  The  war  in  the  South.  Treaty  of  Ghent. 

THE  RISE  OF  THE  DEMOCRACY 107 

"The  era  of  good  feeling."  Florida.  Monroe  doc 
trine.  Growth  of  the  nation.  Growth  of  slavery. 
The  Missouri  Compromise.  The  young  West.  Whigs 
and  Democrats.  Tariffs.  Nullification.  A  new  era. 
The  spoils  system.  Whigs  come  into  power.  Oregon 
and  Texas. 

THE  SLAVE  POWER 151 

War   with   Mexico.     Wilmot   Proviso.      California. 
Effects   of  the   Compromise.      Kansas-Nebraska  bill. 
The  struggle  for  Kansas.     Dred  Scott.     The  crisis, 
vii 


$1797403 


viii  Contents 


PAGE 


THE  CIVIL  WAR 183 

The  North  and  South  in  1860.  Fort  Sumter  and 
Bull  Run.  Affair  of  the  Trent.  Success  in  the  West. 
Merrimac  and  Monitor.  McClellan  in  Virginia.  West 
ern  campaigns.  Emancipation  of  the  slaves.  The 
great  crisis  of  the  war.  Chattanooga.  Combined 
operations  under  Grant.  End  of  the  war. 

INDEX 247 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

Expansion  Map  of  the  United  States 4 

Inauguration  of  Washington  as  President 9 

From  a  History  of  United  States  published  in  1820 

Alexander  Hamilton 12 

After  the  miniature  portrait  by  Robertson,  with  auto 
graph 

Anthony  Wayne 17 

After  the  portrait  sketch  by  Trumbull,  with  autograph 

Autograph  of  Genet 21 

John  Jay 22 

After  the  portrait  by  Stuart,  with  autograph 

John  Adams 25 

After  the  portrait  by  Stuart,  with  autograph 

Autograph  of  Talleyrand 26 

Truxtun  Medal 27 

Napoleon 29 

After  the  portrait  by  Delaroche,  with  autograph 

George  Washington 35 

After  the  portrait  by  Stuart 


The  Tomb  of  Washington  .     .     , 
After  an  old  sketch 

ix 


x  Illustrations 

PAGE 

Mount  Vernon 40 

From  a  print  published  in  1798 

Autograph  of  Washington 42 

Mrs.  Washington 45 

After  the  portrait  by  Stuart 

Mount  Vernon 46 

From  a  recent  photograph 

Charles  Cotesworth  Pinckney 51 

After  the  miniature  portrait  by  Malbone,  with  auto 
graph 

Thomas  Jefferson 53 

After  the  portrait  by  Stuart 

John  Marshall 56 

After  the  portrait  by  Inman,  with  autograph 

Meriwether  Lewis 59 

After  the  portrait  by  Peale,  with  autograph 

William  Clark 60 

After  the  portrait  by  Peale,  with  autograph 

Meriwether  Lewis 61 

After  the  drawing  by  St.  Memin 

Tripoli  Medal „     .     .       63 

George  Clinton 65 

After  the  portrait  by  Ames,  with  autograph 

Aaron  Burr 66 

After  the  portrait  by  Stuart,  with  autograph 

Washington  at  the  Beginning  of  the  Last  Century  ...       70 
From  an  early  print 

Rufus  King 76 

After  the  portrait  by  Stuart,  with  autograph 


Illustrations  xi 

PAGE 

James  Madison 79 

After  the  portrait  by  Stuart,  with  autograph 

DeWitt  Clinton 80 

After  the  portrait  by  Trumbull,  with  autograph 

Captain  Isaac  Hull 82 

From  the  portrait  published  in  the  Analectic  Maga 
zine,  1815 

Bainbridge  Medal 83 

The  Chesapeake  and  Shannon 84 

From  a  print  published  in  1815 

The  Enterprise  and  Boxer 85 

From  a  print  published  in  1815 

The  Constitution 87 

From  a  print  published  in  1815 

Engraved  Title-Page  for  the  Naval  Monument    ....       89 
Published   in   1815  celebrating  the  victories  of  the 
American  navy 

William  Hull 91 

After  the  portrait  by  Stuart,  with  autograph 

Oliver  H.  Perry 93 

After  the  portrait  by  Jarvis,  with  autograph 

Two  Views  of  Perry's  Victory 95 

From  prints  published  in  1815 

Thomas  Macdonough 97 

After  the  portrait  by  Jarvis,  with  autograph 

Andrew  Jackson 99 

After  the  portrait  by  Jarvis 

The  Capitol  at  Washington  after  being  burned  by  the 

British 100 

From  an  old  print 


xii  Illustrations 

PAGE 

James  Monroe 109 

After  the  portrait  by  Stuart,  with  autograph 

Robert  Fulton Ill 

After  the  portrait  by  West,  with  autograph 

Eli  Whitney 113 

After  the  portrait  by  King,  with  autograph 

The  Locks  at  Lockport  on  the  Erie  Canal 117 

From  prints  published  in  1838 

Thomas  H.  Benton 121 

After  a  daguerreotype,  with  autograph 

John  Quincy  Adams 123 

After  the  portrait  by  Durand,  with  autograph 

Henry  Clay 125 

After  a  daguerreotype,  with  autograph 

The  Mohawk  and  Hudson  Railroad,  1831 129 

Redrawn  from  an  old  sketch 

Daniel  Webster 131 

After  a  daguerreotype,  with  autograph 

William  Lloyd  Garrison 133 

After  a  photograph,  with  autograph 

Andrew  Jackson 137 

After  the  drawing  by  Longacre,  with  autograph 

Martin  Van  Buren 139 

After  a  photograph,  with  autograph 

William  Henry  Harrison 140 

After  the  portrait  by  Lambdin,  with  autograph 

John  Tyler 142 

After  a  daguerreotype,  with  autograph 

Sam  Houston 145 

After  a  daguerreotype,  with  autograph 


Illustrations  xiii 

PAGE 

James  K.  Polk 147 

After  the  portrait  by  Healey,  with  autograph 

Winfield  Scott 153 

After  the  portrait  by  Weir,  with  autograph 

James  Russell  Lowell 155 

After  a  photograph,  with  autograph 

Zachary  Taylor 157 

After  a  daguerreotype,  with  autograph 

Millard  Fillmore 160 

After  a  photograph,  with  autograph 

Harriet  Beecher  Stowe 161 

After  the  drawing  by  Richmond,  with  autograph 

Franklin  Pierce 164 

After  the  portrait  by  Healey,  with  autograph 

Stephen  A.  Douglas 167 

After  a  photograph,  with  autograph 

Charles  Sumner 170 

After  a  photograph,  with  autograph 

James  Buchanan 172 

After  a  daguerreotype,  with  autograph 

John  Brown .     .     176 

After  a  photograph,  with  autograph 

John  C.  Breckinridge 178 

After  a  daguerreotype,  with  autograph 

Napoleon  III 187 

After  the  portrait  by  Winterhalter,  with  autograph 

Jefferson  Davis 189 

After  a  photograph,  with  autograph 

Alexander  H.  Stephens 192 

After  a  photograph,  with  autograph 


xiv  Illustrations 

PAGE 

Abraham  Lincoln 193 

After  a  photograph,  with  autograph 

Fort  Su inter  after  the  Bombardment 195 

After  a  photograph 

Montgomery,  Alabama,  February  8,  1861 196 

From  a  contemporary  print 

Confederate  Capitol  at  Richmond 197 

From  a  print 

George  B.  McClellan 199 

After  a  photograph,  with  autograph 

A.  Sidney  Johnston 204 

After  a  photograph,  with  autograph 

Ulysses  S.  Grant 205 

From  a  photograph,  with  autograph 

David  G.  Farragut 209 

After  a  photograph,  with  autograph 

John  Ericsson 211 

After  a  photograph,  with  autograph 

John  C.  Fremont .213 

After  a  photograph,  with  autograph 

Joseph  E.  Johnston .     .     215 

After  a  photograph,  with  autograph 

John  Pope 217 

After  a  photograph,  with  autograph 

Henry  W.  Halleck 219 

After  a  photograph,  with  autograph 

Don  Carlos  Buell 220 

After  a  photograph,  with  autograph 

William  S.  Rosecrans 221 

After  a  photograph,  with  autograph 


Illustrations  xv 

PAGE 

General  Bragg 223 

After  a  photograph 

Joseph  Hooker 227 

After  a  photograph,  with  autograph 

Thomas  J.  Jackson  ("  Stonewall "  Jackson) 229 

After  a  photograph,  with  autograph 

George  G.  Meade 231 

After  a  photograph,  with  autograph 

George  H.  Thomas 233 

After  a  photograph,  with  autograph 

William  T.  Sherman 235 

After  a  photograph,  with  autograph 

Robert  E.  Lee 237 

After  a  photograph,  with  autograph 

General  Hood 241 

After  a  photograph 

Philip  H.  Sheridan 243 

After  a  photograph,  with  autograph 


THE  PERIOD  OF  WEAKNESS 


THE  PERIOD   OF   WEAKNESS 

Conditions  of  American  progress.  Hamilton's  measures. 
Whisky  insurrection.  Indian  War.  Rise  of  parties.  "Cit 
izen"  Genet.  Jay's  treaty.  Troubles  with  France.  Alien 
and  sedition  laws.  Kentucky  and  Virginia  resolutions. 
Death  of  Washington.  Downfall  of  the  Federalist  party. 
The  Louisiana  Purchase.  Exploration  of  Oregon.  The 
Tripolitan  War.  Burr  and  Hamilton.  Embargo. 

The  nation  over  which  George  Washington 
was  called  to  preside  in  1789  was  a  third-rate 
power,  inferior  in  population  and  wealth  to 
Holland,  for  example,  and  about  on  a  level 
with  Portugal  or  Denmark.  The  population, 
numbering  less  than  four  million,  was  thinly 
scattered  through  the  thirteen  states  between 
the  Atlantic  and  the  Alleghenies,  beyond  which 
mountainous  barrier  a  few  hardy  pioneers  were 
making  the  beginnings  of  Tennessee,  Ken 
tucky,  and  Ohio.  Roads  were  few  and  bad, 
none  of  the  great  rivers  were  bridged,  mails 
were  irregular.  There  were  few  manufac 
tures.  There  were  many  traders  and  merchant 


6    How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

seamen  in  the  coast  towns  of  the  north,  but  the 
great  majority  of  the  people  were  farmers  who 
lived  on  the  produce  of  their  own  estates  and 
seldom  undertook  long  journeys.  Hence  the 
different  parts  of  the  country  knew  very  lit 
tle  about  each  other,  and  entertained  absurd 
prejudices;  and  the  sentiment  of  union  be 
tween  the  states  was  extremely  weak.  East 
of  the  Alleghenies  the  red  man  had  ceased 
to  be  dangerous,  but  tales  of  Indian  massacre 
still  came  from  regions  no  more  remote  than 
Ohio  and  Georgia.  By  rare  good  fortune  and 
consummate  diplomacy  the  United  States  had 
secured,  at  the  peace  of  1783,  all  the  terri 
tory  as  far  as  the  Mississippi  river,  but  all 
the  vast  regions  beyond,  together  with  the 
important  city  of  New  Orleans  at  its  mouth, 
belonged  to  Spain,  the  European  power  which 
most  cordially  hated  us.  The  only  other 
power  which  had  possessions  in  North  America 
was  England,  from  which  we  had  lately  won 
our  independence.  The  feeling  entertained 
toward  us  in  England  was  one  of  mortifica 
tion  and  chagrin,  accompanied  by  a  hope  that 


TJie  Period  of  Weakness  7 

our  half-formed  Union  would  fall  in  pieces 
and  its  separate  states  be  driven  by  disaster 
to  beg  to  be  taken  back  into  the  British  em 
pire.  The  rest  of  Europe  knew  little  about 
the  United  States  and  cared  less. 

This  country,  however,  which  seemed  so  in 
significant  beside  the  great  powers  of  Europe, 
contained  within  itself  the  germs  of  an  indus 
trial  and  political  development  far  greater 
than  anything  the  world  had  ever  seen.  The 
American  population  was  settled  upon  a  terri 
tory  much  more  than  capable  of  supporting  it. 
The  natural  resources  of  the  country  were  so 
vast  as  to  create  a  steady  demand  for  labor 
far  greater  than  ordinary  increase  of  popula 
tion  could  supply.  This  is  still  the  case,  and 
for  a  long  time  will  continue  to  be  the  case. 
It  is  this  simple  economic  fact  which  has 
always  been  at  the  bottom  of  the  wonderful 
growth  of  the  United  States.  But  it  was  very 
necessary  that  the  nation  should  be  provided 
with  such  a  government  as  would  enable  it 
to  take  full  advantage  of  this  fact.  It  was 
necessary  first,  that  the  Federal  government 


8    How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

should  be  strong  enough  to  preserve  peace 
at  home  and  make  itself  respected  abroad ; 
secondly,  that  local  self-government  should  be 
maintained  in  every  part  of  the  Union;  thirdly, 
that  there  should  be  absolute  free  trade  be 
tween  the  states.  These  three  great  ends  our 
Federal  Constitution  has  secured.  The  requi 
site  strength  in  the  central  government  was, 
indeed,  not  all  acquired  in  a  moment.  It  took 
a  second  war  with  England  in  1812-1815  to 
convince  foreign  nations  that  the  American 
flag  could  not  be  insulted  with  impunity;  and 
it  took  the  terrible  Civil  War  of  1861-1865  to 
prove  that  our  government  was  too  strong  to 
be  overthrown  by  the  most  formidable  domes 
tic  combination  that  could  possibly  be  brought 
against  it,  The  result  of  both  these  wars  has 
been  to  diminish  the  probable  need  for  further 
wars  on  the  part  of  the  United  States.  In 
spite  of  these  and  other  minor  contests,  our 
Federal  Constitution  for  a  century  kept  the 
American  Union  in  such  profound  peace  as 
was  never  seen  before  in  any  part  of  the  earth 
since  men  began  to  live  upon  its  surface. 


•  ••  i1  n >' , 


INAUGURATION  or  WASHINGTON  AS  PRESIDENT 

From  a  print  published  in  1820 

9 


The  Period  of  Weakness  11 


Local  self-government  and  free  trade  within 
the  limits  of  the  Union  were  not  interfered 
with.  As  a  result,  we  were  able  to  profit 
largely  by  our  natural  advantages,  so  that 
the  end  of  our  first  century  of  national  exist 
ence  found  us  the  strongest  and  richest  nation 
in  the  world. 

For  these  blessings,  in  so  far  as  they  are 
partly  the  work  of  wise  statesmanship,  a  large 
share  of  our  gratitude  is  due  to  the  adminis 
tration  of  George  Washington.  The  problem 
before  that  administration  was  to  organize  the 
government  upon  the  lines  laid  down  in  the 
Constitution,  so  that  its  different  departments 
would  work  smoothly  together.  This  difficult 
work  was  so  successfully  accomplished  that 
little  change  has  been  found  necessary  from 
that  day  to  this.  The  success  was  mainly 
due  to  the  organizing  genius  of  Hamilton 
in  the  cabinet,  assisted  by  the  skill  and  tact 
of  Madison  as  leading  member  of  the  House 
of  Representatives.  Though  these  great  men 
were  often  opposed  to  each  other  in  regard  to 
special  measures,  their  work  all  tended  toward 


12 


vme  United  States  became  a  Nation 


a  common  result.     Hamilton,  as  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury,   occupied  the  most  important 


position  in  Washington's  cabinet.  The  first 
thing  to  be  done  was  to  restore  the  credit  of 
the  United  States,  which  had  been  completely 


The  Period  of  Wea 

ruined  during  the  Revolutionary  War  and  the 
troubled  years  which  followed  it.  Hamilton 
proposed-  three  measures  :  first,  that  the  gov 
ernment  should  assume  the  foreign  debt  of  the 
confederation,  and  pay  it  in  full ;  secondly, 
that  the  domestic  debt,  which  seemed  to  have 
been  virtually  repudiated,  should  likewise  be 
assumed  and  paid;  thirdly,  that  the  debts  of 
the  separate  states  should  also  be  assumed 
and  paid  by  the  Federal  government.  The 
first  of  these  measures  met  with  no  opposi 
tion.  The  second  was  opposed  on  the  ground 
that  it  would  only  benefit  speculators  who  had 
bought  up  United  States  securities  at  a  dis 
count  ;  but  Hamilton's  friends  argued,  Let  us 
teach  people  who  hold  government  securities 
hereafter  not  to  sell  them  at  a  discount;  and 
so  the  measure  was  carried.  The  third  meas 
ure  met  with  violent  opposition,  for  many  peo 
ple  thought  the  Federal  government  had  no 
legal  power  to  assume  a  state  debt.  No  doubt 
it  was  a  somewhat  heroic  measure.  There 
was  a  fierce  and  bitter  fight  over  it,  which 
at  last  was  only  settled  by  what  in  political 


united  States  became  a  Nation 


slang  is  called  "  logrolling,"  or  an  exchange 
of  favors.  The  site  for  a  Federal  capital  was 
to  be  selected.  The  northern  people  generally 
wished  to  have  it  not  farther  south  than  the 
Delaware  river,  while  the  southerners  were  de 
termined  not  to  have  it  farther  north  than  the 
Potomac.  Jefferson,  who  was  Washington's 
Secretary  of  State,  was  prominent  in  urging 
the  southern  view  of  this  question,  as  well 
as  in  opposing  the  assumption  of  the  state 
debts.  The  two  controversies  were  settled  by 
a  bargain  between  Jefferson  and  Hamilton, 
in  which  the  former  withdrew  his  opposi 
tion  to  assumption,  while  the  latter  used  his 
influence  with  the  Federalist  party  in  favor 
of  the  Potomac  as  a  site  for  the  Federal  capi 
tal.  The  assumption  of  state  debts  was  a 
master  stroke  of  policy.  All  those  persons 
to  whom  any  state  owed  money  were  at  once 
won  over  to  the  support  of  the  Federal  gov 
ernment.  There  were  many  such  persons, 
and  many  of  them  were  wealthy  and  power 
ful.  All  these  now  felt  a  common  interest  in 
upholding  the  national  credit,  which,  through 


The  Period  of  Weakness  15 

these  wise  and  vigorous  measures  of  Hamil 
ton,  was  soon  completely  restored. 

In  order  to  carry  out  these  measures,  money 
was  necessary,  and  this  must  be  raised  by  Fed 
eral  taxation.  There  were  two  ways  in  which 
this  could  be  done,  either  by  internal  taxes  or 
by  customhouse  duties.  The  latter  method 
was  mainly  resorted  to,  because  it  is  more 
indirect,  and  while  it  takes  vastly  more  money 
out  of  people's  pockets,  they  are  usually  too 
dull  to  realize  this  as  they  would  in  the  case 
of  a  direct  tax.  When  a  tax  is  wrapped  up 
in  the  extra  fifty  cents  paid  to  a  merchant 
for  a  yard  of  foreign  cloth,  it  is  so  effectually 
hidden  that  most  people  do  not  know  it  is 
there.  Hence  this  method  of  taxation  is  dan 
gerous  ;  it  enables  taxes  to  be  laid  for  the 
benefit  of  greedy  manufacturers,  and  thus 
furtively  takes  from  the  people  vast  sums 
of  money  which  never  get  into  the  treasury. 
This  sort  of  thing  is  called  "protection,"  which 
is  so  pleasing  a  word  that  it  makes  many  peo 
ple  loath  to  see  taxes  reduced.  In  Hamilton's 
time  these  dangers  were  not  so  well  understood 


16    How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

as  they  are  now.  But  the  most  indirect  and 
covert  method  of  taxation  was  the  one  that 
must  needs  be  adopted,  because  people  had 
not  been  used  to  paying  taxes  except  to  their 
town,  county,  and  state  governments,  and 
would  be  likely  to  rebel  against  taxes  too 
directly  demanded  for  the  Federal  treasury. 

An  instance  of  this  was  furnished  in  1794 
by  the  tax  on  whisky.  The  settlers  in  the 
mountains  of  Pennsylvania  and  Virginia  had 
long  since  found  that  it  cost  more  to  carry 
their  corn  and  wheat  to  market  than  they 
could  sell  it  for,  and  accordingly  they  dis 
tilled  it  into  whisky.  When  Congress  now 
laid  a  tax  upon  whisky,  they  grumbled,  and 
when  the  revenue  officers  called  upon  them, 
they  refused  to  pay  the  tax  and  threatened 
to  take  up  arms.  It  was  necessary  to  show 
people  that  such  proceedings  would  not  be 
allowed ;  and  Washington  summarily  sup 
pressed  the  insurrection  by  sending  to  the 
disaffected  region  an  army  of  sixteen  thou 
sand  men,  —  a  force  so  large  as  to  make  the 
mere  idea  of  resistance  ridiculous. 


The  Period  of  Weakness  17 

Then,  as  ordinarily,  the  western  frontier  was 
the  scene  of  troubles  with  the  Indians.  This 
frontier  was  then  near  the  Wabash  river.  In 


1790  the  red  men  won  a  great  victory  over 
General  Harmar  near  the  site  of  Fort  Wayne, 
and  in  the  following  year  they  inflicted  a  terrible 


18    How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

defeat  upon  General  St.  Clair  near  the  head 
waters  of  the  Wabash.  They  now  tried  to 
make  a  treaty  which  should  exclude  white 
settlers  from  this  region.  But  in  1794,  in 
a  fierce  battle  near  the  site  of  Toledo,  they 
were  totally  defeated  by  General  Wayne,  and 
were  forced  to  make  a  treaty  by  which  they 
were  moved  farther  west. 

The  divisions  between  political  parties  had 
now  become  strongly  marked.  People  were 
first  divided  into  two  great  national  parties  in 
the  autumn  of  1787,  when  the  question  was 
whether  the  Federal  Constitution  should,  be 
ratified  by  the  states.  These  first  parties  were 
called  Federalist  and  Anti-Federalist,  names 
which  explain  themselves.  The  adoption  of 
the  Constitution  was  a  decisive  defeat  for  the 
Anti-Federalist  party;  the  financial  measures 
of  Hamilton  completed  its  destruction.  Par 
ties  then  became  divided  in  the  only  sound 
and  healthy  way  possible  in  a  free  country, 
namely,  into  those  who  wished  to  extend, 
and  those  who  wished  to  limit,  the  powers  of 
government.  The  former  kept  the  name  of 


The  Period  of  Weakness  19 

Federalists,  the  second  received  the  name  of 
Democratic-Republicans.  They  preferred  to 
be  called  Republicans,  while  their  enemies 
tried  to  call  them  Democrats,  an  epithet  which 
was  then  supposed  to  convey  a  stigma.  Until 
about  1825-1830  the  correct  name  for  this 
party  is  Republican ;  after  that  time  it  is  right 
to  speak  of  it  as  the  Democratic  party.  The 
reader  must  bear  in  mind  the  awkward  fact 
that  in  American  politics  at  the  beginning  of 
the  century  the  name  Republican  meant  ex 
actly  the  opposite  to  what  it  means  now.  So 
far  as  the  word  goes,  it  might  as  well  have  been 
applied  to  one  party  as  the  other;  American 
party  names  have  but  little  descriptive  signifi 
cance  anyway.  But  at  the  outset  the  name 
Democrat  really  had  a  meaning.  It  was  prop 
erly  applied  to  those  who  wished  to  increase 
the  direct  participation  of  the  people  in  the  gov 
ernment,  to  abolish  all  remnants  of  privilege, 
and  to  extend  the  suffrage  which  at  that  time 
was  more  or  less  limited  in  all  the  states.  The 
founder  and  greatest  leader  of  the  Republi 
can  party,  Thomas  Jefferson,  was  before  all 


20    How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

men  a  Democrat.  In  the  highest  intellectual 
qualities  he  was  inferior  to  Hamilton  and 
Madison;  but  he  excelled  them  in  a  certain 
generosity  of  intelligence  which  enabled  him 
to  see  that  no  form  of  government  can  be  suc 
cessful  in  the  long  run,  if  it  leaves  any  class 
of  people  with  the  feeling  that  they  are  forci 
bly  deprived  of  a  share  in  the  management 
of  things.  Jefferson's  opponent,  the  leader  of 
the  Federalists,  was  Hamilton.  Between  the 
two  parties  Washington  pursued  a  national 
policy  of  his  own,  though  his  sympathies  were 
mainly  with  the  Federalists. 

A  firm  hand  and  indomitable  will  like 
Washington's  were  needed  at  this  time,  for 
the  foreign  sympathies  of  our  two  parties  were 
so  strong  that  we  were  continually  running 
the  risk  of  getting  dragged  into  war.  Party 
quarrels  were  concerned  even  more  with  Euro 
pean  politics  than  with  American  affairs.  The 
French  Revolution  broke  out  in  the  first  year 
of  Washington's  first  term  (1789);  by  the 
second  year  of  his  second  term  it  had  reached 
its  most  frightful  period.  France  and  England 


The  Period  of  Weakness  21 

were  now  at  war.  The  Republicans  realized 
the  good  in  the  French  Revolution  so  far  as  to 
sympathize  with  it  in  spite  of  its  horrors.  The 
Federalists  sympathized  with  England  as  the 
upholder  of  law  and  order  in  Europe.  Party 
strife  has  never  run  so  high,  except  just  before 
our  Civil  War.  The  French  expected  us  to  help 
them  in  their  war  against  England,  and  in  1793 


AUTOGRAPH  OF  GENET 

they  sent  over  a  minister  to  the  United  States 
to  persuade  us  to  do  so.  This  man,  who  was 
called  "  Citizen"  Genet,  behaved  as  if  he  owned 
the  United  States.  He  tried,  without  waiting 
for  permission,  to  fit  out  privateers  in  American 
ports,  and  thus  drag  us  into  war  with  England. 
Many  Republicans  were  disposed  to  uphold 
him  in  everything,  but  his  insolence  presently 
disgusted  his  own  supporters.  Washington 
sternly  checked  his  proceedings,  and  at  length 


22    How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

complained   of   him   to   the   French   govern 
ment,  which  thought  it  best  to  recall  him. 


In  1795  Washington  had  one  of  his  hardest 
trials.  Since  the  peace  of  1783  England  had 
treated  us  as  shabbily  as  she  knew  how.  She 


The  Period  of  Weakness  23 

still  held  Detroit  and  other  frontier  forts,  in 
disregard  of  the  treaty,  and  it  was  believed 
that  the  British  commandants  had  secretly 
helped  the  Indians  on  the  W abash.  British 
war  ships,  moreover,  were  in  the  habit  of  im 
pressing  American  seamen  and  seizing  Amer 
ican  ships  bound  to  or  from  French  ports. 
War  might  easily  grow  out  of  this,  and  to 
prevent  such  a  calamity  Washington  sent 
John  Jay  on  a  special  mission  to  England. 
Jay  negotiated  a  treaty  which  only  partially 
secured  the  American  claims,  but  Washing 
ton's  government  wisely  adopted  it  as  prefer 
able  to  war.  There  was  great  excitement 
everywhere ;  Hamilton  was  stoned  on  the 
street,  and  scurrilous  newspapers  heaped  abuse 
upon  Washington,  calling  him  "the  stepfather 
of  his  country." 

As  Washington  refused  to  be  a  candidate 
for  a  third  term,  the  election  of  1796  wras 
warmly  contested  by  the  two  parties.  John 
Adams,  the  Federalist  candidate,  was  elected 
over  Jefferson,  who,  according  to  the  rule  at 
that  time,  became  Vice  President,  as  second 


24    How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

on  the  list.  This  was  an  unwise  rule,  since 
under  it  the  death  of  the  President  might 
reverse  the  result  of  the  election.  The  ad 
ministration  of  John  Adams  was  chiefly  occu 
pied  with  disputes  with  France.  The  French 
were  indignant  at  our  attitude  of  neutral 
ity,  and  treated  us  with  intolerable  insolence. 
Under  Washington's  administration,  Gouver- 
neur  Morris,  a  Federalist,  had  been  for  some 
time  minister  to  France,  but  as  he  was  greatly 
disliked  by  the  gang  of  anarchists  that  then 
misruled  that  country,  Washington  had  re 
called  him  and  sent  James  Monroe,  a  Repub 
lican,  in  his  place.  Monroe  was  instructed  to 
try  to  reconcile  the  French  to  Jay's  treaty, 
but  instead  of  this  he  encouraged  them  to 
hope  that  the  treaty  would  not  be  ratified. 
Washington  accordingly  recalled  him  and  sent 
Cotesworth  Pinckney,  a  Federalist,  in  his  place. 
The  French  government  were  so  enraged  at 
the  ratification  of  Jay's  treaty  that  they 
would  not  allow  Pinckney  to  stay  in  Paris, 
and  at  the  same  time  decrees  were  passed 
discriminating  against  American  commerce. 


The  Period  of  Weakness  25 

The  first  act  of  Mr.  Adams  was  to  call  an 
extra  session  of  Congress  to  consider  how 
war  with  France  was  to  be  avoided.  A  spe 
cial  commission  was  sent  to  Paris,  but  the 


government  there  would  not  receive  the  com 
missioners.  Prince  Talleyrand  had  the  im 
pudence  to  send  secret  emissaries  to  them  to 
demand  a  large  sum  of  money  as  blackmail, 


26    How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

to  be  paid  to  several  members  of  the  French 
government  on  condition  of  their  stopping 
the  outrages  upon  American  commerce.  The 
indignant  envoys  sent  home  to  America  an 
account  of  this  infamous  proposal,  and  Mr. 
Adams  laid  the  dispatches  before  Congress, 
substituting  the  letters  X.  Y.  Z.  for  the  names 
of  Talleyrand's  emissaries.  Hence  these 
papers  have  ever  since  been  known  as  the 

Ct  ^  .  3*. 

AUTOGRAPH  OF  TALLEYRAND 

"  X.  Y.  Z.  dispatches."  They  were  published, 
and  aroused  intense  excitement  on  both  sides 
of  the  Atlantic.  The  United  States  pre 
pared  for  war.  For  the  moment  the  Repub 
lican  party  seemed  overwhelmed.  From  all 
quarters  went  up  the  war  cry,  "  Millions  for 
defense ;  not  one  cent  for  tribute."  A  few 
excellent  frigates  were  built;  an  army  was 
raised,  and  Washington  was  placed  in  com 
mand  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant  general. 
It  was  during  this  excitement  that  the  song 


The  Period  of  Weakness 


27 


TRUXTUN  MEDAL 

of  "Hail  Columbia"  was  published.  Foi 
about  a  year  there  was  really  war  with  France, 
though  it  was  never  declared.  In  February, 
1799,  Captain  Truxtun,  in  the  frigate  Con 
stellation,  defeated  and  captured  the  French 
frigate  L'Insurgente  near  the  island  of  St. 
Christopher.  In  February,  1800,  the  same 
gallant  officer  in  a  desperate  battle  destroyed 
the  frigate  La  Vengeance,  which  was  much 
his  superior  in  strength  of  armament.  The 
French,  seeing  our  warlike  attitude,  had 
already,  early  in  1799,  grown  somewhat 
more  civil.  Talleyrand  tried  to  disavow  the 
X.Y.Z.  affair,  and  made  conciliatory  overtures 
to  Vans  Murray,  the  American  minister  at  The 


28    How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

Hague.  President  Adams  wisely  decided  to 
meet  the  French  government  halfway,  and 
accordingly,  in  spite  of  the  fiercely  warlike 
temper  of  the  Federalist  party,  he  appointed 
Vans  Murray  minister  to  France,  and  sent  over 
two  commissioners  to  aid  him  in  adjusting  the 
difficulties.  When  these  envoys  reached  Paris, 
they  found  Napoleon  Bonaparte  at  the  head 
of  the  government,  and  succeeded  in  settling 
everything  amicably.  The  course  of  John 
Adams,  in  resisting  popular  clamor  and  mak 
ing  peace  with  France,  deserves  our  highest 
praise.  It  was  one  of  the  noblest  actions  of 
his  life,  but  it  prevented  his  reelection  to  the 
presidency.  For  a  long  time  there  had  been 
intense  jealousy  and  dislike  between  Adams 
and  the  other  great  Federalist  leader,  Hamil 
ton  ;  and  on  the  occasion  of  the  French  mission 
these  antagonisms  bore  fruit  in  a  quarrel  be 
tween  Mr.  Adams  and  his  cabinet,  and  presently 
in  a  split  in  the  Federalist  party. 

Another  affair  contributed  largely  to  the 
downfall  of  the  Federalist  party.  In  1798, 
during  the  height  of  the  popular  fury  against 


29 


The  Period  of  Weakness  31 

France,  the  Federalists  in  Congress  presumed 
too  much  upon  their  strength,  and  passed  the 
famous  alien  and  sedition  acts.  By  the  first 
of  these  acts  aliens  were  rendered  liable  to 
summary  banishment  from  the  United  States 
at  the  sole  discretion  of  the  President ;  and 
any  alien  who  should  venture  to  return  from 
such  banishment  was  liable  to  imprisonment 
for  life.  By  the  sedition  act,  any  scandalous 
or  malicious  writing  against  the  President  or 
Congress  was  liable  to  be  dealt  with  in  the 
United  States  courts  and  punished  by  fine 
and  imprisonment.  This  act  was  unconstitu 
tional,  for  it  was  an  infringement  upon  free 
dom  of  the  press ;  and  both  acts  aroused  more 
widespread  indignation  than  any  others  that 
have  ever  passed  in  Congress. 

From  the  southern  Republicans  the  alien 
and  sedition  laws  called  forth  a  vigorous 
remonstrance.  A  series  of  resolutions,  drawn 
up  by  Madison,  was  adopted  in  1798  by  the 
Legislature  of  Virginia,  and  a  similar  series, 
still  more  pronounced  in  character,  and  drawn 
up  by  Jefferson,  was  adopted  in  the  same 


32    How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

year  by  the  Legislature  of  Kentucky.  The 
Virginia  resolutions  asserted  with  truth  that,  in 
adopting  the  Federal  Constitution,  the  states 
had  surrendered  only  a  limited  portion  of  their 
powers  ;  and  went  on  to  declare  that,  when 
ever  the  Federal  government  should  exceed 
its  constitutional  authority,  it  was  the  busi 
ness  of  the  state  governments  to  interfere 
and  pronounce  such  action  unconstitutional. 
Accordingly,  by  these  resolutions,  Virginia 
declared  the  alien  and  sedition  laws  uncon 
stitutional,  and  invited  the  other  states  to 
join  $*  the  declaration.  Not  meeting  with  a 
favorable  response,  Virginia  renewed  these 
resolutions  the  next  year. 

There  was  nothing  necessarily  seditious,  or 
tending  toward  secession,  in  the  Virginia  res 
olutions  ;  but  the  attitude  assumed  in  them 
was  uncalled  for  on  the  part  of  any  state, 
inasmuch  as  there  existed,  in  the  Federal  Su 
preme  Court,  a  tribunal  competent  to  decide 
upon  the  constitutionality  of  acts  of  Congress. 
But  the  Kentucky  resolutions  went  further. 
They  declared  that  our  Federal  Constitution 


The  Period  of  Weakness  33 

was  a  compact  to  which  the  several  states  were 
the  one  party  and  the  Federal  government  was 
the  other,  and  each  party  must  decide  for 
itself  as  to  when  the  compact  was  infringed, 
and  as  to  the  proper  remedy  to  be  adopted. 
When  the  resolutions  were  repeated  in  1799, 
a  clause  was  added  which  went  still  further 
and  mentioned  "nullification"  as  the  suitable 
remedy,  and  one  which  any  state  might  em 
ploy.  This  was  venturing  upon  dangerous 
ground;  for  if  it  were  once  admitted  that  a 
state  might  take  it  upon  itself  to  prevent  the 
execution  of  a  United  States  law  with:n  its 
own  borders,  a  long  step  would  be  made 
toward  admitting  the  right  of  secession.  In 
after  times  secessionists  often  appealed  to  the 
Kentucky  resolutions ;  but  their  doctrine  was 
never  generally  admitted,  though  different 
states,  north  and  south,  under  the  influence 
of  strong  excitement,  seemed  at  times  ready 
to  act  upon  it. 

When  appointed  to  command  the  army, 
July  3,  1798,  Washington  accepted  the  com 
mission  upon  the  express  understanding  that 


34    How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

he  was  not  to  be  called  into  the  field  until  an 
emergency  should  arise  which  should  require 
his  presence.  During  the  following  year  he 
continued  to  superintend  from  a  distance  the 
concerns  of  the  army,  as  his  ample  and  minute 
correspondence  manifests ;  and  he  was  at  the 
same  time  earnestly  endeavoring  to  bring  the 
affairs  of  his  rural  domain  into  order.  A  six 
teen  years'  absence  from  home,  with  short 
intervals,  had  deranged  them  considerably,  so 
that  it  required  all  the  time  he  could  spare 
from  the  usual  occupations  of  life  to  bring 
them  into  tune  again.  It  was  a  period  of 
incessant  activity  and  toil,  therefore,  both 
mental  and  bodily.  He  was  for  hours  in  his 
study  occupied  with  his  pen,  and  for  hours  on 
horseback,  riding  the  rounds  of  his  extensive 
estate,  visiting  the  various  farms,  and  super 
intending  and  directing  the  works  in  opera 
tion.  All  this  he  did  with  unfailing  vigor, 
though  now  in  his  sixty-seventh  year. 

Occasional  reports  of  the  sanguinary  con 
flict  that  was  going  on  in  Europe  would  reach 
him  in  the  quiet  groves  of  Mount  Vernon  and 


GEORGE  WASHINGTON 

After  the  painting  by  Stuart 

35 


The  Period  of  Weakness  37 

awaken  his  solicitude.  "A  more  destructive 
sword,"  said  lie,  "was  never  drawn,  at  least 
in  modern  times,  than  this  war  has  produced. 
It  is  time  to  sheathe  it  and  give  peace  to 
mankind."  A  private  letter  written  to  the 
Secretary  of  War  bespeaks  his  apprehensions: 
"  I  have  for  some  time  past  viewed  the  politi 
cal  concerns  of  the  United  States  with  an 
anxious  and  painful  eye.  They  appear  to  me 
to  be  moving  by  hasty  strides  to  a  crisis ;  but 
in  what  it  will  result,  that  Being  who  sees, 
foresees,  and  directs  all  things,  alone  can  tell. 
The  vessel  is  afloat,  or  very  nearly  so,  and 
considering  myself  as  a  passenger  only,  I  shall 
trust  to  the  mariners  (whose  duty  it  is  to 
watch)  to  steer  it  into  a  safe  port." . 

Winter  had  set  in,  December,  1799,  with 
occasional  wind  and  rain  and  frost,  yet  Wash 
ington  still  kept  up  his  active  round  of  in 
door  and  outdoor  occupations,  as  his  diary 
records.  He  was  in  full  health  and  vigor, 
dined  out  occasionally,  and  had  frequent 
guests  at  Mount  Vernon,  and,  as  usual,  was 
part  of  every  day  in  the  saddle,  going  the 


38    How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

rounds   of   his    estate,    and,  in   his   military 
phraseology,  "visiting  the  outposts." 

He  had  recently  walked  with  his  favorite 
nephew,  Lawrence  Lewis,  about  the  grounds, 
showing  the  improvements  he  intended  to 


THE  TOMB  OF  WASHINGTON 

After  an  old  sketch 


make,  and  had  especially  pointed  out  the 
spot  where  he  purposed  building  a  new  family 
tomb,  the  old  one  being  damaged  by  the  roots 
of  trees  which  had  overgrown  it  and  caused 
it  to  leak.  "  This  change,"  said  he,  "  I  shall 
make  the  first  of  all,  for  I  may  require  it 
before  the  rest." 


The  Period  of  Weakness  39 

"  When  I  parted  from  him,"  adds  Lewis, 
"he  stood  on  the  steps  of  the  front  door, 
where  he  took  leave  of  myself  and  another. 
...  It  was  a  bright  frosty  morning;  he  had 
taken  his  usual  ride,  and  the  clear,  healthy 
flush  on  his  cheek  and  his  sprightly  manner 
brought  the  remark  from  both  of  us  that  we 
had  never  seen  the  general  look  so  well.  I 
have  sometimes  thought  him  decidedly  the 
handsomest  man  I  ever  saw ;  and  when  in  a 
lively  mood,  so  full  of  pleasantry,  so  agree 
able  to  all  with  whom  he  associated,  that 
I  could  hardly  realize  he  was  the  same  Wash 
ington  whose  dignity  awed  all  who  approached 
him." 

For  some  time  past  Washington  had  been 
occupied  in  digesting  a  complete  system  on 
which  his  estate  was  to  be  managed  for 
several  succeeding  years,  specifying  the  culti 
vation  of  the  several  farms,  with  tables  desig 
nating  the  rotations  of  the  crops.  It  occupied 
thirty  folio  pages,  and  was  executed  with  that 
clearness  and  method  which  characterized  all 
his  business  papers.  This  was  finished  on  the 


40    How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

10th  of  December,  and  was  accompanied  by  a 
letter  of  that  date  to  his  manager  or  steward. 
It  is  a  valuable  document,  showing  the  sound 
ness  and  vigor  of  his  intellect  at  this  advanced 
stage  of  life,  and  the  love  of  order  that  reigned 


MOUNT  VERNON 

From  a  print  published  in  1798 


throughout  his  affairs.  "My  greatest  anxiety," 
said  he,  on  a  previous  occasion,  "  is  to  have 
all  these  concerns  in  such  a  clear  and  distinct 
form,  that  no  reproach  may  attach  itself  to 
me  when  I  have  taken  my  departure  for  the 
land  of  spirits."  It  was  evident,  however, 


The  Period  of  Weakness  41 

that  full  of  health  and  vigor,  he  looked  for 
ward  to  his  long-cherished  hope,  —  the  enjoy 
ment  of  a  serene  old  age  in  this  home  of 
his  heart. 

According  to  his  diary,  the  morning  on  which 
these  voluminous  instructions  to  his  steward 
were  dated  was  clear  and  calm,  but  the  after 
noon  was  lowering.  The  next  day  (llth),  he 
notes  that  there  was  wind  and  rain,  and  "  at 
night  a  large  circle  round  the  moon."  The 
morning  of  the  12th  was  overcast.  That 
morning  he  wrote  to  Hamilton,  heartily  ap 
proving  of  a  plan  for  a  military  academy, 
which  the  latter  had  submitted  to  the  Secre 
tary  of  War.  About  ten  o'clock  he  mounted 
his  horse  and  rode  out  as  usual  to  make  the 
rounds  of  his  estate.  The  ominous  ring  round 
the  moon,  which  he  had  observed  on  the  pre 
ceding  night,  proved  a  fatal  portent.  "About 
one  o'clock,"  he  notes,  "  it  began  to  snow,  soon 
after  to  hail,  and  then  turned  to  a  settled 
cold  rain."  Having  on  an  overcoat,  he  con 
tinued  his  ride  without  regarding  the  weather, 
and  did  not  return  to  the  house  until  after 


42    How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

three.  His  secretary,  Tobias  Lear,  approached 
him  with  letters  to  be  franked,  that  they 
might  be  taken  to  the  post  office  in  the  even 
ing.  Washington  franked  the  letters,  but 
observed  that  the  weather  was  too  bad  to 
send  a  servant  out  with  them.  Mr.  Lear  per 
ceived  that  snow  was  hanging  from  his  hair, 
and  expressed  fears  that  he  had  got  wet  ; 
but  he  replied,  No,  that  his  greatcoat  had 


AUTOGRAPH  OF  WASHINGTON 

kept  him  dry.  As  dinner  had  been  waiting 
for  him  he  sat  down  without  changing  his 
clothes.  "In  the  evening,"  writes  his  secre 
tary,  "he  appeared  as  well  as  usual." 

On  the  following  morning  the  snow  was 
three  inches  deep  and  still  falling,  which  pre 
vented  him  from  taking  his  usual  ride.  He 
complained  of  a  sore  throat,  and  had  evidently 
taken  cold  the  day  before.  In  the  afternoon 
the  weather  cleared  up,  and  he  went  out  on 


The  Period  of  Weakness  43 

the  grounds  between  the  house  and  the  river 
to  mark  some  trees  which  were  to  be  cut 
down.  A  hoarseness  which  had  hung  about 
him  through  the  day  grew  worse  towards 
night,  but  he  made  light  of  it. 

He  was  very  cheerful  in  the  evening  as  he 
sat  in  the  parlor  with  Mrs.  Washington  and 
Mr.  Lear,  amusing  himself  with  the  papers 
which  had  been  brought  from  the  post  office. 
When  he  met  with  anything  interesting  or 
entertaining,  he  would  read  it  aloud  as  well 
as  his  hoarseness  would  permit,  or  he  lis 
tened  and  made  occasional  comments  while 
Mr.  Lear  read  the  debates  of  the  Virginia 
Assembly.  On  retiring  to  bed,  Mr.  Lear  sug 
gested  that  he  should  take  something  to  re 
lieve  the  cold.  "No,"  replied  he  ;  "you  know 
I  never  take  anything  for  a  cold.  Let  it  go 
as  it  came." 

In  the  night  he  was  taken  extremely  ill 
with  ague  and  difficulty  of  breathing.  Be 
tween  two  and  three  o'clock  in  the  morning 
he  awoke  Mrs.  Washington,  who  would  have 
risen  to  call  a  servant;  but  he  would  not 


44    How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

permit  her,  lest  she  should  take  cold.  At  day 
break,  when  the  servant  woman  entered  to 
make  a  fire,  she  was  sent  to  call  Mr.  Lear. 
He  found  the  general  breathing  with  difficulty, 
and  hardly  able  to  utter  a  word  intelligibly. 

His  old  friend,  Dr.  Craik,  soon  arrived,  and 
two  other  physicians  were  called  in.  Various 
remedies  were  tried,  but  without  avail.  In 
the  course  of  the  afternoon  he  appeared  to  be 
in  great  pain  and  distress  from  the  difficulty 
of  breathing,  and  frequently  changed  his  pos 
ture.  Between  five  and  six  o'clock  he  was 
assisted  to  sit  up  in  his  bed.  "  I  feel  I  am 
going,"  said  he  ;  "  I  thank  you  for  your  atten 
tions,  but  I  pray  you  will  take  no  more  trouble 
about  me ;  let  me  go  off  quietly  ;  I  cannot  last 
long." 

Between  ten  and  eleven  o'clock  he  expired 
without  a  struggle  or  a  sigh. 

On  opening  his  will,  which  he  had  handed 
to  Mrs.  Washington  shortly  before  death,  it 
was  found  to  have  been  carefully  drawn  up 
by  himself  in  the  preceding  July ;  and  by  an 
act  in  conformity  with  his  whole  career,  one 


The  Period  of  Weakness  45 

of  its  first  provisions  directed  the  emancipa 
tion  of  his  slaves  on  the  decease  of  his  wife. 
It  had  long  been  his  earnest  wish  that  the 
slaves  held  by  him  in  his  own  right  should 
receive  their  freedom  during  his  life,  but  he 
had  found  it  would  be  attended  with  insuper- 


MRS.  WASHINGTON 

able  difficulties  on  account  of  their  intermix 
ture  by  marriage  with  the  "  dower  negroes," 
whom  it  was  not  in  his  power  to  manumit 
under  the  tenure  by  which  they  were  held. 
With  provident  benignity  he  also  made  pro 
vision  in  his  will  for  such  as  were  to  receive 
their  freedom  under  this  device,  but  who,  from 
age,  bodily  infirmities,  or  infancy,  might  be 


46    How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

unable  to  support  themselves,  and  he  expressly 
forbade,  under  any  pretense  whatsoever,  the 
sale  or  transportation  out  of  Virginia  of 
any  slave  of  whom  he  might  die  possessed. 
Though  born  and  educated  a  slaveholder,  this 


MOUNT  VERNON 

From  a  recent  photograph 


was  all  in  consonance  with  feelings,  senti 
ments,  and  principles  which  he  had  long  en 
tertained.  In  a  letter  to  Mr.  John  Mercer,  in 
September,  1786,  he  writes:  "I  never  mean, 
unless  some  particular  circumstances  should 


The  Period  of  Weakness  47 

compel  me  to  it,  to  possess  another  slave  by 
purchase,  it  being  among  my  first  wishes  to 
see  some  plan  adopted  by  which  slavery  in 
this  country  may  be  abolished  by  law."  And 
eleven  years  afterwards,  in  August,  1797,  he 
writes  to  his  nephew,  Lawrence  Lewis,  in  a 
letter  which  we  have  had  in  our  hands,  "  I 
wish  from  my  soul  that  the  Legislature  of 
this  state  could  see  the  policy  of  a  gradual 
abolition  of  slavery.  It  might  prevent  much 
future  mischief." 

A  deep  sorrow  spread  over  the  nation  on 
hearing  that  Washington  was  no  more.  Con 
gress,  which  was  in  session,  immediately  ad 
journed  for  the  day.  The  next  morning  it  was 
resolved  that  the  Speaker's  chair  be  shrouded 
with  black;  that  the  members  and  officers  of 
the  House  wear  black  during  the  session;  and 
that  a  joint  committee  of  both  houses  be 
appointed  to  consider  the  most  suitable  man 
ner  of  doing  honor  to  the  memory  of  the 
man  "  first  in  war,  first  in  peace,  and  first 
in  the  hearts  of  his  fellow-citizens."  Pub 
lic  testimonials  of  grief  and  reverence  were 


48    How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

displayed  in  every  part  of  the  Union.  Nor 
were  these  sentiments  confined  to  the  United 
States.  When  the  news  of  Washington's  death 
reached  England,  Lord  Bridport,  who  had  com 
mand  of  a  British  fleet  of  nearly  sixty  sail  of 
the  line,  lying  at  Torbay,  lowered  his  flag 
half-mast,  every  ship  following  the  example ; 
and  Bonaparte,  First  Consul  of  France,  on 
announcing  his  death  to  the  army,  ordered 
that  black  crape  should  be  suspended  from 
all  the  standards  and  flags  throughout  the 
public  service  for  ten  days. 

The  character  of  Washington  may  want 
some  of  those  poetical  elements  which  dazzle 
and  delight  the  multitude,  but  it  possessed 
fewer  inequalities  and  a  rarer  union  of  vir 
tues  than  perhaps  ever  fell  to  the  lot  of  any 
other  man,  —  prudence,  firmness,  sagacity, 
moderation,  an  overruling  judgment,  an  im 
movable  justice,  courage  that  never  faltered, 
patience  that  never  wearied,  truth  that  dis 
dained  all  artifice,  magnanimity  without  al 
loy.  It  seems  as  if  Providence  had  endowed 
him  in  a  preeminent  degree  with  the  qualities 


The  Period  of  Weakness  49 

requisite  to  fit  him  for  the  high  destiny  he 
was  called  upon  to  fulfill,  —  to  conduct  a 
momentous  revolution  which  was  to  form  an 
era  in  the  history  of  the  world,  and  to  inaugu 
rate  a  new  and  untried  government,  which, 
to  use  his  own  words,  was  to  lay  the  founda 
tion  "  for  the  enjoyment  of  much  purer  civil 
liberty  and  greater  public  happiness  than  have 
hitherto  been  the  portion  of  mankind." 

The  fame  of  Washington  stands  apart  from 
every  other  in  history,  shining  with  a  truer 
luster  and  a  more  benignant  glory.  With  us 
his  memory  remains  a  national  property,  where 
all  sympathies  throughout  our  widely  extended 
and  diversified  empire  meet  in  unison.  Under 
all  dissensions  and  amid  all  the  storms  of 
party  his  precepts  and  example  speak  to  us 
from  the  grave  with  a  paternal  appeal ;  and 
his  name  —  by  all  revered  —  forms  a  univer 
sal  tie  of  brotherhood,  —  a  watchword  of  our 
Union. 

"It  will  be  the  duty  of  the  historian  and 
the  sage  of  all  nations,"  writes  the  eminent 
British  statesman,  Lord  Brougham,  "  to  let 


50    How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

no  occasion  pass  of  commemorating  this  illus 
trious  man ;  and  until  time  shall  be  no  more, 
will  a  test  of  the  progress  which  our  race  has 
made  in  wisdom  and  virtue,  be  derived  from 
the  veneration  paid  to  the  immortal  name  of 
Washington." 

By  the  spring  of  1800  it  became  apparent 
that  the  Republicans  were  steadily  gaining 
ground.  In  April  the  New  York  state  elec 
tion  went  against  the  Federalists.  Soon  after 
this  the  President  dismissed  some  of  his  cab 
inet  officers  who  were  too  friendly  to  Hamilton, 
and  the  break  in  the  Federalist  party  became 
irreparable.  Charles  Cotesworth  Pinckney  was 
the  second  choice  of  that  party  for  President, 
and  the  Hamiltonians  tried  to  divert  votes  to 
him  from  Adams.  The  election  was  very  close. 
Of  the  electoral  votes  seventy-three  were  for 
Jefferson,  seventy-three  for  Aaron  Burr,  sixty- 
five  for  Adams,  sixty-four  for  Pinckney,  and 
one  for  Jay.  As  there  was  no  name  highest 
on  the  list,  it  was  left  to  the  House  of  Repre 
sentatives  to  decide  between  the  two  highest 
candidates.  Intrigues  followed.  Some  of  the 


The  Period  of  Weakness  51 

Federalists  wished  to  elect  Burr  instead  of 
their  archenemy  Jefferson ;  but  Hamilton  used 


all  his  influence  against  such  a  scheme,  and 
at  last,  on  February  17,  1801,  Jefferson  was 
elected  by  the  House.  In  another  fortnight 


52     How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

the  government  would  have  been  left  with 
out  any  executive  head.  There  were  fears  of 
anarchy  and  threats  of  civil  war.  To  provide 
against  the  recurrence  of  such  a  difficulty, 
the  twelfth  amendment  to  the  Constitution, 
adopted  in  1804,  changed  the  method  of  con 
ducting  presidential  elections  to  that  which 
has  ever  since  been  employed. 

The  inauguration  of  Jefferson  was  the  first 
that  took  place  in  the  city  of  Washington, 
whither  the  Federal  government  had  been 
removed  from  Philadelphia  in  1800.  The 
national  capital,  which  is  now  fast  becoming 
one  of  the  finest  cities  in  the  world,  was  then 
a  wretched  village  in  the  woods.  Many  of 
the  Federalists  believed  that  the  election  of 
Jefferson  would  entail  speedy  ruin  upon  the 
country  ;  but  such  fears  proved  groundless, 
as  usual.  His  first  administration  was  marked 
by  national  prosperity.  It  coincided  with  the 
only  interval  of  peace  between  England  and 
France  during  the  Napoleonic  period,  and  for 
the  moment  we  were  unmolested  by  those 
powers.  There  was  no  serious  change  in  the 


THOMAS  JEFFEUSON 

After  the  painting  by  Stuart 

53 


The  Period  of  Weakness  55 

administration  of  our  government.  Jeffer 
son  pardoned  those  persons  who  had  been  im 
prisoned  under  the  alien  and  sedition  laws, 
and  the  Republican  House  of  Representatives 
impeached  Judge  Chase  of  Maryland  for 
alleged  harshness  in  conducting  trials  under 
those  laws ;  but  he  was  acquitted  by  a  Repub 
lican  Senate.  Very  few  removals  from  office 
were  made  for  political  reasons.  The  Supreme 
Court,  under  the  lead  of  Chief  Justice  John 
Marshall,  remained  Federalist  in  complexion, 
and  during  the  next  quarter  of  a  century  did 
work  of  imperishable  renown  in  strengthening 
and  interpreting  the  Constitution.  The  Re 
publicans  had  become  reconciled  to  many 
Federalist  ideas  which  at  first  they  had  con 
demned,  and  now  that  the  government  was 
in  their  own  hands  they  were  not  so  jealous 
of  its  powers. 

This  was  shown  in  what  was  incomparably 
the  greatest  event  of  Jefferson's  administra 
tion.  The  population  of  the  United  States 
was  rapidly  increasing  and  was  beginning  to 
pour  into  the  Mississippi  valley.  In  1802 


56    How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

the  state  of  Ohio  was  admitted  into  the 
Union ;  Mississippi  and  Indiana  were  already 
organized  as  territories ;  and  a  growing  interest 


was  felt  in  the  western  country.  It  was 
now  learned  that  France  had  just  acquired  by 
treaty  from  Spain  the  territory  of  Louisiana, 


The  Period  of  Weakness  57 

so  that  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  river 
and  all  the  vast  region  to  the  west  of  it  as 
far  as  the  Rocky  mountains  had  passed  into 
the  hands  of  an  active  and  aggressive  Euro 
pean  power.  Napoleon  had,  indeed,  acquired 
this  territory  with  a  vague  intention  of  re 
gaining  the  ascendency  in  America,  which 
France  had  lost  in  the  Seven  Years'  War; 
but  in  1803  the  prospect  of  renewed  war 
with  England  made  him  change  his  mind. 
With  her  control  of  Canada  and  her  superior 
fleet  England  might  easily  wrest  from  his 
grasp  the  two  ends  of  the  Mississippi  river 
and  defeat  his  schemes.  It  seemed  better  to 
put  Louisiana  out  of  England's  reach  by  sell 
ing  it  to  the  United  States ;  and  accordingly 
Jefferson  found  no  difficulty  in  buying  it  of 
Napoleon  for  fifteen  million  dollars.  By  this 
great  stroke  the  area  of  the  United  States 
was  more  than  doubled.  Before  1803  it  was 
827,844  square  miles;  Jefferson's  purchase 
added  to  it  about  900,000  square  miles,  out  of 
which  have  since  been  formed  the  states  of 
Louisiana,  Arkansas,  Missouri,  Iowa,  Kansas, 


58   How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

Nebraska,  South  Dakota,  North  Dakota,  Mon 
tana,  and  Wyoming;  also  Indian  Territory  and 
Oklahoma,  and  a  great  part  of  the  states  of 
Minnesota  and  Colorado.  The  effect  of  this 
great  acquisition  of  territory,  by  such  an  active 
and  prosperous  people  as  the  Americans,  was 
to  insure  them  the  ultimate  control  of  the 
continent  without  the  need  of  any  foreign 
warfare  worth  mentioning.  It  presently  set 
us  free  for  an  indefinite  length  of  time  from 
European  complications ;  but,  on  the  other 
hand,  it  added  new  and  formidable  features 
to  the  rivalry  between  the  free  states  and 
the  slave  states. 

In  making  this  purchase,  which  was  des 
tined  to  exercise  such  profound  influence 
upon  the  history  of  the  United  States,  Jeffer 
son  did  not  pretend  that  he  had  constitutional 
authority  for  what  he  was  doing.  The  act 
was  so  clearly  for  the  public  good  that  he 
assumed  the  responsibility,  trusting  that  a 
new  constitutional  amendment  would  justify 
it ;  but  he  was  so  completely  upheld  by  pub 
lic  sentiment  that  no  such  elaborate  step  was 


The  Period  of  Weakness  59 

thought  necessary ;  the  universal  acquiescence 
was  enough. 

As    an   expander   of    American   dominion, 
Jefferson  did  not  stop  here.    The  region  beyond 


the  Rocky  mountains  and  north  of  California 
was  then  quite  unexplored.  In  1804  Jeffer 
son  sent  an  expedition  under  captains  Meri- 
wether  Lewis  and  William  Clark,  which 


60   How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

explored  the  valley  of  the  Columbia  river  as 
far  as  the  Pacific  ocean,  and  thus  gave  us  a 
title  to  Oregon,  though  many  years  elapsed 
before  we  took  possession. 


The  Barbary  states  on  the  Mediterranean 
coast  of  Africa  had  been  for  more  than  four 
centuries  a  nuisance  to  the  civilized  world. 
Their  pirate  cruisers  swarmed  upon  the  high 


MERIWETHER  LEWIS 

From  a  print  in  the  Annlcctic  ifngazine  (1815)  reproducing  the  drawing  by 
St.  Memin.  which  belonged  to  Captain  Clark 


The  Period  of  Weakness 


63 


seas  and  robbed  the  merchant  ships  of  all 
nations.  Important  captives  they  held  for 
ransom,  and  all  others  they  sold  into  hope 
less  slavery.  European  war  ships  often  pun 
ished  them,  but  were  unable  to  put  down  the 


TRIPOLI  MEDAL 

evil ;  and  the  greatest  nations  had  tried  to 
bribe  them  to  keep  the  peace  by  paying  black 
mail.  The  United  States  had  at  first  felt 
obliged  to  adopt  this  humiliating  policy,  but 
at  length  our  patience  was  exhausted.  A 
small  fleet  was  sent  to  the  Mediterranean 


64    How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

and  bombarded  Tripoli.  After  a  desultory 
warfare  extending  over  two  years  Tripoli  sued 
for  peace ;  and,  the  British  navy  presently  fol 
lowing  our  example,  a  few  years  more  saw  the 
end  of  this  abominable  nuisance. 

The  popularity  of  Jefferson's  administration 
was  shown  in  the  elections  of  1804.  When  he 
was  nominated  for  reelection,  George  Clinton 
was  nominated  with  him  for  the  vice  presi 
dency,  instead  of  Burr,  who  in  1801  had 
shown  too  much  readiness  to  intrigue  with 
Federalists.  Cotes  worth  Pinckney  and  Rufus 
King  were  the  Federalist  candidates.  The 
election  was  not  a  close  one  like  the  election 
of  1800.  Out  of  176  electoral  votes  the  Fed 
eralists  received  only  14,  and  in  both  houses 
of  Congress  the  Republican  majority  was  over 
whelming.  After  the  nominations,  but  before 
the  election,  the  country  was  shocked  by  a 
dreadful  tragedy.  The  disappointed  Burr  had 
tried,  with  Federalist  help,  to  succeed  Clinton 
as  governor  of  New  York,  but  was  defeated. 
Here,  as  before  in  1801,  Hamilton  had  used 
his  influence  against  him,  and  now,  in  a  fit  of 


The  Period  of  Weakness 


65 


desperation,  Burr  determined  to  get  rid  of  this 
enemy.  He  contrived,  in  July,  1804,  to  force 
Hamilton  into  a  duel,  in  which  the  latter  was 


1 


slain.  The  mourning  of  the  country  over  the 
loss  of  this  great  man  was  intense,  and  the 
wretched  Burr  found  that  his  public  career 
was  ruined.  After  a  wild  attempt  to  set  up 


66    How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 


a  government  for  himself  in  the  Mississippi 
valley,  he  was  arrested  and  tried  for  treason, 
and  though  acquitted  for  want  of  sufficiently 
definite  evidence,  he  became  an  outcast  from 
society. 


The  Period  of  Weakness  67 

Jefferson's  second  administration  was  the 
beginning  of  a  stormy  period  which  ended  in 
war.  Under  Washington  and  Adams  we  had 
with  difficulty  been  kept  from  getting  drawn 
into  the  world-wide  struggle  between  England 
and  France.  Now  that  strife  was  renewed  on 
such  a  gigantic  scale  as  to  force  the  whole 
civilized  world  to  take  sides.  With  his  famous 
Berlin  and  Milan  decrees,  Napoleon  sought  to 
prevent  neutral  vessels  from  entering  British 
harbors,  while  England  replied  with  decrees, 
known  as  orders  in  council,  forbidding  neutral 
vessels  to  enter  the  harbors  of  any  nation  in 
league  with  Napoleon  or  under  his  leadership. 
The  United  States,  as  a  prominent  maritime 
neutral  nation,  had  obtained  a  large  share  of 
the  carrying  trade,  and  these  decrees  wrought 
great  injury  to  American  commerce.  If  an 
American  vessel  touched  at  almost  any  port 
of  continental  Europe,  the  first  British  cruiser 
that  came  along  deemed  her  its  lawful  prey ; 
if  she  touched  at  a  British  port,  then  she 
might  expect  to  be  seized  by  the  next  French 
craft  she  should  meet.  The  two  greatest 


68    Hoiv  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

naval  powers  in  the  world  were  thus  united 
in  a  wholesale  robbery  of  American  ships  and 
American  merchandise.  But  England  did  us 
most  harm,  because  she  had  more  war  ships 
and  more  privateers  than  France.  In  another 
respect  England  possessed  a  peculiar  power 
of  annoying  us.  She  claimed  and  exercised 
the  right  of  stopping  the  vessels  of  other 
nations  and  forcibly  taking  from  them  any 
seamen  who  appeared  to  be  British  subjects, 
in  order  to  compel  them  to  serve  in  the  British 
navy.  Such  a  claim  on  the  part  of  France 
would  annoy  Americans  but  little,  for  no 
one  was  likely  to  mistake  an  American  for  a 
Frenchman.  But  to  distinguish  an  American 
from  an  Englishman  was  not  so  easy,  and  con 
sequently  a  great  many  citizens  of  the  United 
States  were  impressed  into  the  British  service. 
The  Revolutionary  feeling  of  hostility  to  Great 
Britain,  which  had  begun  before  1800  to  di 
minish  in  intensity,  was  revived  and  strength 
ened  by  these  outrages.  In  1807  the  British 
frigate  Leopard,  of  fifty  guns,  close  to  the 
coast  of  Virginia,  fired  upon  the  American 


The  Period  of  Weakness  69 

frigate  Chesapeake,  of  thirty-eight  guns,  and 
killed  or  wounded  more  than  twenty  men. 
The  American  ship,  being  not  even  prepared 
for  action,  hauled  down  her  flag,  and  was 
boarded  by  the  British,  who  seized  four  of 
the  crew  and  carried  them  off  to  Halifax. 
One  of  these,  who  was  a  British  subject,  was 
hanged  as  a  deserter  ;  the  other  three  were 
condemned  to  death  and  then  reprieved  on 
condition  of  entering  the  British  service. 

At  the  news  of  this  dastardly  outrage  the 
whole  country  was  thrown  into  such  excite 
ment  as  had  not  been  witnessed  since  the 
battle  of  Lexington.  A  cabinet  meeting  was 
held  at  Washington,  measures  were  taken  for 
procuring  military  stores  and  strengthening 
our  coast  defenses,  and  the  states  were  called 
upon  for  one  hundred  thousand  men.  But 
the  British  government  avoided  war  for  the 
moment  by  sending  a  special  envoy  to  Wash 
ington  to  chaffer  and  procrastinate.  The  act 
of  the  Leopard  was  disavowed,  but  there  was 
no  willingness  shown  to  make  reparation. 
Feeling  unprepared  for  war,  the  United  States 


70   How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

government  had  recourse  to  an  exceedingly 
stupid  and  dangerous  measure.  It  hoped  to 
browbeat  England  and  France  by  depriving 
them  of  our  trade,  and  accordingly  in  1807 


WASHINGTON  AT  THE  BEGINNING  OF  THE  LAST  CENTURY 

From  an  early  print 

there  was  passed  the  "  embargo  act,"  which 
forbade  any  vessel  to  set  out  from  the  United 
States  for  any  foreign  port.  This  wonderful 
piece  of  legislation  did  more  harm  to  Amer 
ican  commerce  than  all  the  cruisers  of  France 
and  England  could  do ;  while  as  a  means  of 


The  Period  of  Weakness  71 

bringing  either  of  these  adversaries  to  reason 
it  was  quite  useless.  England,  indeed,  seemed 
rather  to  enjoy  it,  for  while  it  diminished  her 
commercial  dealings  with  America,  it  increased 
her  share  in  the  general  carrying  trade  of  the 
world.  In  America  the  distress  was  felt  most 
severely  in  New  England,  and,  as  usual  in  those 
days,  whenever  any  part  of  the  country  felt 
dissatisfied  with  the  policy  of  the  Federal 
government,  threats  of  secession  were  heard. 
In  1809  the  embargo  was  repealed,  and  the 
"non-intercourse  act "  took  its  place.  This 
act  prohibited  trade  with  England  and  France 
so  long  as  their  obnoxious  measures  should 
be  kept  in  force,  but  it  allowed  trade  with  all 
other  countries.  It  was  as  ineffectual  as  the 
embargo,  but  did  not  do  quite  so  much  harm 
to  American  commerce.  The  close  of  Jeffer 
son's  presidency  was  thus  a  season  of  national 
humiliation.  In  twenty  years  our  great  states 
men  had  done  a  wonderful  work  in  creating 
a  government  able  to  make  itself  respected  at 
home ;  but  it  was  still  too  weak,  in  a  mili 
tary  sense,  to  make  itself  respected  abroad. 


SECOND  WAR  WITH  GEEAT 
BRITAIN 


73 


SECOND  WAR  WITH  GREAT  BRITAIN 

Strength  of  the  Eepublicans.  Declaration  of  war.  Naval 
victories.  The  war  in  the  Northwest.  The  war  on  the 
Lakes.  The  war  in  the  South.  The  treaty  of  Ghent. 

This  humiliating  situation  of  the  United 
States  was  not  due  to  any  fault  of  Jefferson 
or  his  party,  and  in  the  election  of  1808  they 
won  another  great  victory,  though  not  quite 
so  decisive  as  in  1804.  The  Federalist  can 
didates  were  the  same  as  before,  Charles  Cotes- 
worth  Pinckney  and  Rufus  King ;  and  now 
they  obtained  forty-seven  of  the  one  hundred 
and  seventy-six  electoral  votes.  James  Mad 
ison,  who  had  been  Secretary  of  State  since 
1801,  was  elected  President,  and  George  Clin 
ton  was  reflected  to  the  vice  presidency. 
Madison  was  a  political  thinker  of  the  highest 
order,  and  had  done  more  than  any  other 
man  toward  constructing  our  Federal  Con 
stitution.  He  had  been  a  leading  Federal 
ist,  though  more  moderate  than  Hamilton  or 

75 


76    How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

Adams,  but  had  soon  taken  sides  with  the 
Republicans.      But  his   intelligence  .was   too 


broad  to  allow  him  to  be  a  mere  man  of 
party;  he  was  never  an  out-and-out  Repub 
lican  like  Jefferson.  By  1804  many  of  the 


Second  War  with  Great  Britain          77 

most  intelligent  Federalists  had  gone  over  to 
the  Republicans ;  and  the  more  rigid-minded 
men  who  were  left,  especially  in  New  England, 
made  the  party  more  and  more  narrow  and 
sectional,  and  at  length  brought  it  into  gen 
eral  discredit.  The  most  notable  defection 
from  the  Federalist  party  was  that  of  John 
Quincy  Adams,  about  the  time  of  the  embargo. 
In  1810  Congress  repealed  the  non-inter 
course  act,  which  as  a  measure  of  intimida 
tion  had  accomplished  nothing.  Congress  now 
sought  to  use  the  threat  of  non-intercourse  as 
a  sort  of  bribe.  It  informed  England  and 
France  thavt  if  either  nation  would  repeal 
its  obnoxious  edicts,  the  non-intercourse  act 
would  be  revived  against  the  other.  Napo 
leon,  who  was  as  eminent  for  lying  as  for 
fighting,  then  informed  the  United  States 
that  he  revoked  the  Berlin  and  Milan  decrees 
as  far  as  American  ships  were  concerned. 
At  the  same  time  he  gave  secret  orders  by 
which  the  decrees  were  to  be  practically 
enforced  as  harshly  as  ever.  But  the  lie 
served  its  purpose.  Congress  revived  the 


78    How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

non-intercourse  act  against  Great  Britain  alone, 
and  in  1811  hostilities  actually  began  on 
sea  and  land.  On  sea  the  American  frigate 
President  had  an  encounter  with  the  British 
sloop  Little  Belt.,  and  nearly  knocked  her  to 
pieces  without  suffering  any  damage.  On 
land  Tecumseh  and  his  warriors,  attacking 
our  northwestern  settlements  with  British 
assistance,  were  defeated  at  Tippecanoe  by 
General  Harrison.  The  growing  war  feeling 
was  shown  in  the  election  of  Henry  Clay  of 
Kentucky  as  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Repre 
sentatives,  while  on  the  floor  of  the  House 
the  leadership  fell  to  John  Caldwell  Calhoun 
of  South  Carolina,  and  in  the  Senate  to  Wil 
liam  Crawford  of  Georgia.  Mr.  Madison  was 
nominated  for  a  second  term  on  condition  of 
adopting  the  war  policy;  and  on  June  18, 
1812,  war  against  Great  Britain  was  formally 
declared.  Five  days  later  the  British  govern 
ment  revoked  its  orders  in  council;  but  this 
concession  came  too  late.  The  Americans 
had  lost  all  patience,  and  probably  nothing 
short  of  an  abandonment  of  the  right  of 


Second  War  witli  Great  Britain 


79 


search  on  Great  Britain's  part  could  have 
prevented  the  war.  The  Federalists  of  New 
England,  however,  still  opposed  the  war,  and 
of  the  members  of  Congress  who  voted  for 


it,  three  fourths  were  from  the  South  and 
West.  That  this  Federalist  opposition  was 
somewhat  factious  would  appear  from  the 
presidential  campaign.  The  Federalists  were 


80    How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

too  weak  to  nominate  a  candidate  for  the 
presidency,  and  Mr.  Madison's  only  competitor 
was  DeWitt  Clinton  of  New  York,  who  had 


been  nominated  by  a  section  of  the  Kepub- 
licans  as  likely  to  prove  a  more  efficient 
war  magistrate  than  Madison.  Most  of  the 


Second  War  with  Great  Britain         81 

Federalists  now  supported  Clinton  in  a  coa 
lition  which,  as  usual  in  such  cases,  proved 
disastrous  to  both  sides.  Of  two  hundred  and 
eighteen  electoral  votes  Madison  received  one 
hundred  and  twenty-eight,  and  was  elected ; 
the  Federalists  fell  more  than  ever  into  dis 
favor,  and  Clinton's  career  was  henceforth 
restricted  to  his  own  state. 

The  election  showed  that  the  war  was 
popular.  It  had  been  made  so  by  a  series  of 
naval  victories  which  astonished  everybody. 
On  the  13th  of  August  the  frigate  Essex, 
under  command  of  Captain  Porter,  captured 
the  sloop  Alert,  after  a  fight  of  eight  minutes, 
without  losing  a  man.  On  the  19th  the  frig 
ate  Constitution,  under  command  of  Captain 
Hull,  after  a  half  hour's  fight  in  the  Gulf  of 
St.  Lawrence,  captured  the  frigate  Guerriere. 
The  American  ship  had  fourteen  men  killed 
and  wounded,  and  was  ready  for  action  again 
in  a  couple  of  hours ;  the  British  sloop  lost 
one  hundred  men,  her  three  masts  with  all  her 
rigging  were  shot  away,  and  her  hull  was  so 
badly  damaged  that  she  could  not  be  carried 


82    How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

off  as  a  prize.  On  the  13th  of  October  the 
sloop  Wasp,  Captain  Jones,  captured  the  sloop 
Frolic  in  a  desperate  fight  off  Cape  Hatteras. 
On  the  25th  the  frigate  United  States,  Captain 
Decatur,  captured  the  frigate  Macedonian  off 


CAPTAIN  ISAAC  HULL 

the  island  of  Madeira  after  a  fight  of  an  hour 
and  a  half.  The  British  ship  lost  one  hundred 
and  six  men,  was  totally  dismasted,  and  had 
nearly  a  hundred  shot  holes  in  her  hull,  but 
was  brought  away  to  America ;  Decatur's  ship 
lost  only  twelve  men,  and  was  quite  uninjured. 


Second  War  with  Great  Britain 


83 


BAIN  BRIDGE  MEDAL 

These  remarkable  victories  continued.  On 
the  29th  of  December  the  Constitution,  Cap 
tain  Bainbridge,  in  a  two  hours'  fight  off  the 
coast  of  Brazil,  knocked  to  pieces  the  frigate 
Java,  which  lost  two  hundred  and  thirty  men 
and  had  to  be  destroyed.  On  the  24th  of 
February,  1813,  off  the  coast  of  Guiana,  the 
sloop  Hornet,  Captain  Lawrence,  destroyed 
the  brig  Peacock,  which  sank  before  her  crew 
could  be  removed.  The  Hornet's  rigging  was 
much  injured,  but  she  lost  only  four  men. 

To  appreciate  the  force  of  these  facts,  we 
need  to  remember  that  during  the  preceding 
twenty  years  of  almost  continuous  warfare 
with  France  and  her  allies,  in  hundreds  of 


84    How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 


THE  "CHESAPEAKE"  AND  "SHANNON" 

From  a  print  published  in  1815 

such  single  combats,  the  British  navy  had 
lost  but  five  ships.  Now  in  six  fights  against 
American  vessels  within  a  single  year  the 
British  had  been  shockingly  defeated  every 
time.  The  explanation  was  to  be  found 
partly  in  the  superiority  of  our  shipbuilding, 
partly  in  the  superiority  of  our  gun  prac 
tice  and  the  better  discipline  of  our  crews. 
One  of  the  British  captains  won  success  by 
training  his  men  after  the  American  method. 
On  the  1st  of  June,  1813,  the  British  frigate 
Shannon,  Captain  Broke,  captured  the  Amer 
ican  frigate  Chesapeake  in  a  severe  battle 
near  Boston  harbor.  The  Americans  lost 


Second  War  with  Great  Britain         85 


THE   "ENTERPRISE"  AND  "BOXER" 

From  a  print  published  in  1815 

one  hundred  and  forty-eight  men,  and  the 
British  eighty-three ;  the  Chesapeake  suffered 
more  damage  than  her  antagonist,  though 
the  disparity  was  less  than  in  the  case  of  the 
American  victories  above  mentioned.  The 
extreme  jubilation  in  England  served  as  an 
index  to  the  chagrin  which  had  been  caused 
by  the  six  successive  defeats.  On  the  14th 
of  August  the  American  brig  Argus  was  cap 
tured  in  the  British  Channel  by  the  brig  Pel 
ican,  and  for  a  moment  it  might  have  seemed 
as  if  the  spell  of  American  success  was  broken. 
But  a  few  weeks  later  Lieutenant  Burrows  in 
the  brig  Enterprise  captured  the  brig  Boxer 


86    How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

off  Portland,  Maine.  In  the  spring  Captain 
Porter  in  the  frigate  Essex  had  sailed  around 
Cape  Horn  into  the  Pacific  ocean,  where  he 
made  a  famous  cruise  and  did  immense  dam 
age  to  British  commerce.  In  March,  1814,  he 
was  attacked  in  the  harbor  of  Valparaiso  by 
two  British  frigates,  the  Phoebe  and  the  Cherub, 
and  after  the  bloodiest  fight  of  the  war  the 
Essex  surrendered.  In  April,  1814,  the  Amer 
ican  sloop  Peacock  captured  the  brig  Epervier 
off  the  coast  of  Florida;  in  May  the  Wasp 
captured  the  sloop  Reindeer,  and  in  Septem 
ber  the  sloop  Avon,  both  actions  taking  place 
in  the  British  channel.  In  both  there  was 
the  same  prodigious  disparity  of  loss  as  in 
earlier  fights.  The  Reindeer  and  the  Avon 
were  completely  destroyed,  one  losing  sixty- 
five  men,  the  other  one  hundred ;  while  in  the 
former  action  the  Wasp's  loss  was  twenty- 
six,  in  the  latter  only  three.  On  the  20th 
of  February,  1815,  the  Constitution,  now 
commanded  by  Captain  Stewart,  capped  the 
climax  by  capturing  the  frigate  Cyane  and 
the  sloop  Levant  in  an  action  of  forty 


Second  War  with  Great  Britain 


87 


THE  "CONSTITUTION" 

From  a  print  published  about  1815 

minutes  near  the  island  of  Madeira.  The 
two  British  ships  together  were  barely  a 
match  in  strength  for  the  Constitution,  but 
were  very  skillfully  handled ;  and  the  victory 
of  "  Old  Ironsides "  was  as  brilliant  as  any 
recorded  in  naval  annals.  A  few  weeks  later 
the  Hornet  captured  the  brig  Penguin  off  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  in  the  Indian  ocean 
the  Peacock  closed  the  long  tale  of  victory 
by  overcoming  the  weaker  Nautilus.  These 


88    How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

last  three  victories  occurred  after  peace  had 
been  declared. 

Thus  out  of  sixteen  sea  combats  with 
approximately  equal  forces  the  Americans 
had  been  victorious  in  thirteen.  The  record 
of  our  privateers  was  not  less  remarkable. 
During  the  war  we  took  about  seventeen 
hundred  British  vessels,  while  the  British 
took  about  an  equal  number  from  us.  Con 
sidering1  that  the  American  navy  in  1812 
consisted  of  about  a  dozen  ships,  while  the 
British  navy  numbered  more  than  a  thousand, 
and  that  the  Americans  had  not  a  single  line- 
of-battle  ship  afloat,  these  results  might  well 
be  called  marvelous.  No  other  nation  has 
ever  won  such  laurels  in  contending  against 
the  "mistress  of  the  seas."  The  moral  effect 
upon  Europe  was  prodigious.  Henceforth  the 
United  States  ceased  to  be  regarded  as  a 
nation  that  could  be  insulted  with  impunity. 

Except  for  the  moral  effect  of  these  splendid 
sea  fights,  the  United  States  gained  compara 
tively  little  by  the  war.  On  land  the  offen 
sive  operations  of  the  army  were  feeble  and 


ENGRAVED  TITLE-PAGE  FOR  THE  "  NAVAL  MONUMENT 

(a  book  published  in  1815  celebrating  the  victories  of  the  American  navy) 


80 


Second  War  ivitli  Great  Britain          91 

ineffectual.  The  army  was  small  and  poorly 
trained,  and  too  much  under  the  control  of 
politicians.  Hence  we  began  with  defeats. 
The  military  object  of  the  Americans  was  to 


invade  Canada  and  conquer  it  if  possible. 
The  military  object  of  the  British  was  to 
invade  the  United  States  and  either  detach 
a  portion  of  our  northwestern  territory  or 
secure  positions  which  might  prove  valuable 
in  bargaining  for  terms  of  peace.  The  most 


92    How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

important  frontier  town,  Detroit,  was  held  by 
William  Hull,  governor  of  the  Michigan  ter 
ritory,  a  gallant  veteran  of  the  Revolutionary 
War.  When  war  was  declared  he  marched 
into  Canada,  but  was  driven  back  to  Detroit 
by  a  superior  force  under  General  Brock. 
After  a  short  siege  Hull  was  obliged  to  sur 
render  the  town,  thus  throwing  open  to  the 
enemy  the  whole  region  northwest  of  Ohio. 
In  the. fit  of  unreasoning  rage  and  disappoint 
ment  caused  by  this  grave  disaster,  Hull  was 
tried  by  a  court-martial  and  sentenced  to 
death,  but  was  pardoned  by  Mr.  Madison  on 
account  of  past  services.  Subsequent  research 
has  shown  that  the  verdict  was  grossly  un 
just;  and  the  reputation  of  this  brave  but 
unfortunate  man  is  now  redeemed.  In  Octo 
ber  a  small  force  crossed  Niagara  river  and 
foolishly  attacked  the  British  in  their  strong 
position  on  Queenstown  Heights;  it  was  de 
feated  with  heavy  loss.  Harrison,  who  had 
succeeded  to  the  command  in  the  Northwest, 
now  attempted  to  recover  Detroit ;  but  his 
advanced  guard  under  General  Winchester 


Second  War  with  Great  Britain          93 

was  defeated  at  the  river  Raisin  on  the  22d 
of  January,  1813,  by  the  British  and  Indians 
under  General  Proctor,  and  all  the  prison 
ers  were  cruelly  massacred  by  the  Indians. 


Harrison  was  then  driven  back  to  Fort  Meigs 
by  Proctor,  who  besieged  him  there,  but  un 
successfully. 

During  the  summer  of  1813  both  British 
and  Americans  were  busily  engaged  in  build 
ing  fleets  with  which  to  control  Lake  Erie. 
On  the  10th  of  September  the  two  fleets  met 


94    How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

in  battle,  the  British  commanded  by  Com 
modore  Barclay,  the  Americans  by  Commo 
dore  Perry.  The  forces  were  nearly  equal. 
The  battle,  won  by  magnificent  skill  and  dar 
ing  on  the  part  of  the  American  commander, 
ended  in  the  surrender  of  the  whole  British 
fleet  and  turned  the  scale  of  war  in  the  North 
west.  Ferried  across  the  lake  by  Perry's  fleet, 
Harrison's  army  now  entered  Canada  and  in- 
flrcted  a  crushing  defeat  upon  Proctor  at  the 
river  Thames  (October  5).  This  was  a  severe 
blow  to  the  Indians  also,  for  their  famous 
leader,  Tecumseh,  was  killed.  As  a  conse 
quence  of  the  victories  of  Perry  and  Harri 
son,  the  Americans  recovered  Detroit  and  the 
British  were  driven  from  our  northwestern 
territory. 

Next  summer  the  Americans  again  invaded 
Canada  under  command  of  an  excellent  gen 
eral,  Jacob  Brown,  with  whom  served  an 
officer  presently  to  become  famous, — Winfield 
Scott.  They  crossed  the  Niagara  river  and  de 
feated  the  British  in  four  well-fought  battles, 
at  Chippewa  (July  5),  Lundy's  Lane  (July  25), 


Second  War  ivith  Great  Britain         95 


~ 


Two  VIEWS  OF  PERRY'S  VICTORY 

From  prints  published  in  1815 

and  Fort  Erie  (August  15  and  September  17); 
but  in  spite  of  these  successes  they  obtained 
no  secure  foothold  in  Canada  and  retreated 
across  the  river  before  cold  weather.  While 
these  things  were  going  on  the  British  were 


96   How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

planning  an  invasion  of  northeastern  New 
York  by  the  route  which  Carleton  and 
Burgoyne  had  followed.  To  this  end  it  was 
necessary  to/g&in  control  of  Lake  Champlain, 
as  Carleton  had  done  in  1776.  Fleets  were 
built,  as  on  Lake  Erie  the  year  before,  and  on 
the  llth  of  September  a  decisive  battle  was 
fought  not  far  from  Yalcour  Island  where 
Arnold  had  maintained  such  a  heroic  struggle. 
The  British  fleet  was  annihilated  by  Commo 
dore  Macdonough,  and  the  British  enterprise 
was  abandoned.  But  while  this  attempt  upon 
New  York  was  a  failure,  the  British  succeeded 
in  seizing  the  unoccupied  wilds  of  Maine  east 
of  the  Penobscot  river,  and  thus  creating  a 
panic  in  New  England. 

The  region  west  of  Georgia  and  south  of 
the  Tennessee  river  was  then  a  wilderness 
with  no  important  towns  except  Natchez  and 
Mobile.  The  principal  military  power  in  it 
was  that  of  the  Creek  Indians,  who  took  the 
occasion  to  attack  the  frontier  settlements, 
and  in  August,  1813,  began  with  a  terrible 
massacre  at  Fort  Mimms  near  Mobile.  This 


•J7 


Second  War  with  Great  Britain         99 

brought  upon  the  scene  the  formidable  Ten 
nessee  militia  commanded  by  Andrew  Jack 
son,  who  as  a  youth  had  served  under  Thomas 
Sumter  in  the  Revolutionary  War.  After  a 


ANDREW  JACKSON 

After  the  portrait  by  Jarvis  made  in  1815 

bloody  campaign  of  seven  months  Jackson  had 
completely  subdued  the  Creeks  and  was  ready 
to  cope  with  a  very  different  sort  of  enemy. 

In  March,  1814,  Napoleon  was  dethroned  and 
sent  to  Elba,  and  thus  some  of  Wellington's 


100   How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

finest  troops  were  detached  for  service  in 
America.  In  August  some  five  thousand 
of  these  veterans  landed  in  Chesapeake  Bay, 
took  the  defenseless  city  of  Washington,  and 
burned  the  public  buildings  there,  which  was 
not  much  to  their  credit.  They  then  attempted 


THE  CAPITOL  AT  WASHINGTON  AFTER  BEING  BURNED 
BY  THE  BRITISH 

From  an  old  print 

Baltimore,  but  were  defeated,  and  retired 
from  the  scene  to  take  part  in  a  more  serious 
enterprise.  This  expedition  against  Washing 
ton  was  designed  chiefly  for  insult ;  the  expe 
dition  against  New  Orleans  was  designed  to 
inflict  deadly  injury.  It  was  intended  to  make 
a  permanent  conquest  of  the  lower  Mississippi, 


Second  War  ivith  Great  Britain        101 

and  to  secure  for  Great  Britain  the  western 
bank  of  the  river.  In  December  the  British 
army  of  twelve  thousand  men  under  Sir  Ed 
ward  Pakenham  landed  below  New  Orleans. 
To  oppose  these  veterans  of  the  peninsula, 
Jackson  had  six  thousand  militia  of  that 
sturdy  race  whose  fathers  had  vanquished 
Ferguson  at  Kings  Mountain  and  whose  chil 
dren  so  nearly  vanquished  Grant  at  Shiloh. 
He  awaited  the  enemy  in  an  intrenched  posi 
tion,  where,  on  the  8th  of  January,  1815, 
Pakenham  was  unwise  enough  to  try  to  over 
whelm  him  by  a  direct  assault.  In  less  than 
half  an  hour  the  British  were  in  full  retreat, 
leaving  Pakenham  and  twenty-six  hundred 
men  behind  them  killed  or  wounded  ;  the 
American  loss  was  eight  killed  and  thirteen 
wounded.  The  disparity  of  loss  is  perhaps 
unparalleled  in  history. 

News  traveled  so  slowly  in  those  days  that 
the  victory  of  New  Orleans,  like  the  last  three 
naval  victories,  occurred  after  peace  had  been 
made.  From  the  first  the  war  had  been  un 
popular  in  New  England.  Our  victories  on 


102   How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

the  sea  made  little  difference  in  the  vast 
naval  force  of  Great  Britain,  which  was  able  to 
blockade  our  whole  Atlantic  coast.  Now  that 
Napoleon  was  out  of  the  way  it  would  be 
necessary  for  the  United  States  to  fight  single- 
handed  with  Great  Britain.  In  view  of  these 
things,  and  provoked  by  the  invasion  of 
Maine,  the  Federalists  of  New  England  held 
a  convention  at  Hartford  in  December,  1814, 
to  discuss  the  situation  of  affairs  and  decide 
upon  the  proper  course  to  be  pursued.  As 
there  was  much  secrecy  in  the  proceedings,  a 
suspicion  was  aroused  that  the  purpose  of  the 
convention  was  to  break  up  the  Union  and 
form  a  separate  New  England  confederacy. 
This  suspicion  completed  the  political  ruin 
of  the  Federalist  party.  What  might  have 
come  from  the  Hartford  convention  we  do 
not  know,  for  on  the  24th  of  December  the 
treaty  of  peace  was  signed  at  Ghent.  The 
treaty  left  things  apparently  just  as  they  had 
been  -  before  the  war,  for  England  did  not 
explicitly  renounce  the  right  of  search  and 
impressment.  But  in  spite  of  this  it  had 


Second  War  with  Great  Britain       103 

been  made  evident  that  European  nations 
could  no  longer  regard  the  United  States  as  a 
weak  nation  which  might  be  insulted  with 
impunity.  Partly  for  this  reason,  and  partly 
because  of  the  long  European  peace  which 
followed,  the  British  claim  to  the  right  of 
search  and  impressment  was  no  longer  exer 
cised,  and  at  length  in  1856  was  expressly 
renounced. 


THE  EISE  OF  THE  DEMOCEACY 


105 


THE  RISE   OF   THE   DEMOCRACY 

The  era  of  good  feeling.  Florida.  Monroe  doctrine.  Growth 
of  the  nation.  Growth  of  slavery.  The  Missouri  Com 
promise.  The  young  West.  Whigs  and  Democrats. 
Tariffs.  Nullification.  A  new  era.  The  spoils  system. 
Whigs  come  into  power.  Oregon  and  Texas. 

In  the  presidential  election  of  1816  the 
Federalist  candidate,  Rufus  King,  received 
only  thirty-four  electoral  votes,  against  one 
hundred  and  eighty-seven  for  the  Republi 
can  candidate,  James  Monroe.  In  1820,  when 
Monroe  was  nominated  for  a  second  term, 
the  Federalists  put  no  candidate  into  the 
field,  and  Monroe's  election  was  practically 
unanimous ;  for  form's  sake  one  of  the  elec 
tors  voted  for  John  Quincy  Adams,  so  that 
no  other  President  might  share  with  Wash 
ington  the  glory  of  an  election  absolutely 
unanimous.  The  two  parties  had  now  acqui 
esced  in  each  other's  measures,  and  all,  save 
a  few  malcontents,  called  themselves  Repub 
licans.  The  end  of  the  war  was  the  end  of 

107 


108    How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

the  political  issues  which  had  divided  parties 
since  1789,  and  some  little  time  was  required 
for  new  issues  to  define  themselves;  so  that 
the  period  of  Monroe's  administrations  has 
been  called  "the  era  of  good  feeling."  In 
point  of  fact,  however,  it  was  by  no  means 
a  time  of  millennial  happiness. 

The  changed  attitude  of  the  United  States 
toward  European  powers  was  illustrated  in 
two  events  of  this  period.  The  Seminole 
Indians,  aided  by  the  Spanish  authorities  in 
Florida,  molested  our  southern  frontier  until 
General  Jackson  invaded  that  territory  in 
order  to  put  an  end  to  the  nuisance.  Though 
Jackson's  rough  measures  were  not  fully  sus 
tained  by  the  United  States,  yet  resistance  on 
the  part  of  Spain  was  so  hopeless  that  she 
consented  to  sell  Florida  to  the  United  States 
for  five  million  dollars ;  and  a  treaty  to  this 
effect  was  made  in  1819. 

About  this  time  the  revolt  of  Mexico  arid 
the  Spanish  colonies  in  South  America  had 
made  considerable  progress,  and  it  seemed 
likely  that  the  "Holy  Alliance"  of  Austria, 


The  Rise  of  the  Democracy 


109 


Prussia,  and  Russia  would  interfere  to  assist 
Spain  in  subduing  her  colonies.  To  check 
such  a  movement,  Mr.  Monroe  declared,  in  a 
message  to  Congress  in  1823,  that  the  United 


States  regarded  the  continents  of  North  and 
South  America  as  no  longer  open  to  coloniza 
tion,  and  would  resent  an  attempt  on  the 
part  of  any  European  nation  to  reduce  any 


110    How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

independent  American  nation  to  the  condition 
of  a  colony.  In  this  bold  declaration  the 
United  States  had  the  full  sympathy  of  Eng 
land,  and  it  proved  effectual.  The  attitude 
of  mind  implied  in  such  a  declaration  showed 
that  our  period  of  national  weakness  was  felt 
to  have  come  to  an  end. 

Since  the  time  of  Washington  the  growth 
of  the  United  States  had  been  remarkable 
indeed.  The  population  now  numbered  nearly 
ten  million;  the  public  revenue  had  increased 
from  five  million  dollars  to  twenty-five  million 
dollars.  New  states  were  formed  with  sur 
prising  rapidity,  as  the  obstacles  to  migration 
were  removed.  The  chief  obstacles  had  been 
the  hostility  of  the  Indians  and  the  difficulty 
of  getting  from  place  to  place.  During  the 
late  war  the  Indian  power  had  been  broken 
by  Harrison  in  the  north  and  by  Jackson  in 
the  south.  In  1807  Robert  Fulton  had  in 
vented  the  steamboat.  In  1811  a  steamboat 
was  launched  on  the  Ohio  river  at  Pittsburg, 
and  presently  such  nimble  craft  were  plying 
on  all  the  western  rivers,  carrying  settlers 


The  Else  of  the  Democracy 


111 


and   traders,    farm   produce    and    household 
utensils.     This  gave  an  immense  impetus  to 


the  western  migration.  After  Ohio  had  been 
admitted  to  the  Union  in  1802,  ten  years  had 
elapsed  before  the  next  state,  Louisiana,  was 


112   How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

added.  But  in  six  years  after  the  war  a  new 
state  was  added  every  year:  Indiana  in  1816, 
Mississippi  in  1817,  Illinois  in  1818,  Alabama 
in  1819,  Maine  in  1820,  Missouri  in  1821. 
The  admission  of  the  last-named  state  was  a 
portentous  event,  for  it  suddenly  brought  the 
slavery  question  into  the  foreground. 

Before  the  Revolution  all  the  colonies  had 
negro  slaves,  but  north  of  Maryland  these 
slaves  were  few  in  number  and  of  no  very 
great  value  as  property.  Hence  they  were 
soon  emancipated  in  all  the  northern  states 
except  Delaware.  At  the  close  of  the  eight 
eenth  century  there  was  a  strong  antislavery 
feeling  even  in  Virginia  and  North  Carolina, 
and  it  was  generally  supposed  that  slavery 
would  gradually  become  extinct  without  mak 
ing  serious  political  trouble.  The  only  states 
strongly  in  favor  of  slavery  were  South  Caro 
lina  and  Georgia,  where  the  cultivation  of  rice 
and  indigo  seemed  to  make  negro  labor  indis 
pensable.  But  at  about  that  time  the  in 
ventions  of  the  steam  engine,  the  spinning 
machine,  and  the  power  loom  had  combined 


The  Itise  of  the  Democracy  113 


to  set  up  the  giant  manufactories  of  England, 
and  there  was  thus  suddenly  created  a  great 
demand  for  cotton.  In  1793  Eli  Whitney,  a 


114   How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

Connecticut  schoolmaster  living  in  Georgia, 
invented  the  famous  cotton  gin,  an  instrument 
so  simple  that  slaves  could  use  it,  and  which 
enabled  cotton  to  be  cleaned  and  got  ready 
for  market  with  astonishing  speed.  Hitherto 
very  little  cotton  had  been  grown  in  South 
Carolina  and  Georgia,  but  now  cotton  growing 
became  very  profitable,  and  there  was  a  great 
demand  for  negro  slaves.  In  1808,  according 
to  a  provision  of  the  Federal  Constitution,  the 
importation  of  slaves  from  Africa  was  pro 
hibited  by  law,  so  that  henceforth  cotton 
planters  could  only  obtain  slaves  by  buying 
them  in  such  border  states  as  Virginia  and 
Kentucky.  This  made  the  raising  of  negroes 
so  profitable  to  the  tobacco  planters  of  the 
border  states  that  antislavery  sentiments  soon 
died  out  among  them,  and  the  way  was  pre 
pared  for  uniting  all  the  slave  states  into  a 
solid  South  opposed  to  a  solid  North.  Hence 
forth  there  was  no  likelihood  that  slavery 
would  die  a  natural  death.  On  the  contrary, 
the  policy  of  the  slaveholders  became  ex 
tremely  aggressive  and  sought  new  territory 


The  Rise  of  the  Democracy  115 

in  which  to  introduce  this  barbarous  system  of 
labor  and  build  up  new  states  to  maintain  and 
extend  their  authority  in  the  Federal  Union. 

It  was  not  until  the  westward  migration 
had  crossed  the  Mississippi  river  and  entered 
upon  the  vast  Louisiana  territory  which  Jef 
ferson  had  added  to  the  national  domain  that 
the  conflict  began.  A  kind  of  compromise 
had  been  kept  up  from  the  beginning  by  ad 
mitting  a  free  state  and  a  slave  state  by  turns, 
so  as  to  balance  each  other  in  Congress. 
Thus  Vermont  had  been  counterbalanced  by 
Kentucky,  Tennessee  by  Ohio,  Louisiana  by 
Indiana,  Mississippi  by  Illinois.  In  like  man 
ner  Alabama,  in  1819,  was  naturally  counter 
balanced  in  the  following  year  by  Maine;  but 
as  Missouri  was  also  knocking  at  the  door  of 
Congress,  the  southern  members  now  refused 
to  admit  Maine  until  the  northern  members 
should  consent  to  admit  Missouri  as  a  slave 
state.  The  discussion  was  the  most  important 
that  had  come  up  since  the  adoption  of  the 
Constitution;  for  it  involved  the  whole  ques 
tion  of  the  power  of  the  government  to  allow 


116    How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

or  prohibit  slavery  in  the  national  domain. 
It  was  settled  in  1820  by  the  famous  Missouri 
Compromise,  effected  chiefly  by  the  efforts  of 
Henry  Clay.  Missouri  was  admitted  as  a 
slave  state,  but  it  was  agreed  that  slavery 
should  be  prohibited  in  the  remainder  of  the 
Louisiana  Purchase  north  of  the  parallel  of 
36°  30'.  In  other  words,  the  slaveholders 
gained  their  point  by  promising  "not  to  do 
so  any  more";  and,  like  most  such  promises, 
it  was  kept  till  an  occasion  arose  for  break 
ing  it.  That  occasion  did  not  arise  for  more 
than  thirty  years,  and  it  was  not  until  the 
latter  part  of  this  interval  that  the  question 
of  slavery  again  became  uppermost  in  national 
politics. 

It  was  the  extension  of  national  territory 
or  the  admission  of  new  states  that  brought 
up  the  slavery  question.  Several  years  now 
elapsed  before  the  national  area  or  the  num 
ber  of  states  was  increased.  Enough  country 
was  already  covered  to  answer  the  needs  of 
the  people  until  better  means  of  communi 
cation  were  devised.  The  most  important 


THE  LOCKS  AT  LOCKI-ORT  ox  THE  ERIE  CANAL 

From  prints  published  in  1838 


117 


The  Rise  of  the  Democracy  119 

avenue  of  trade  opened  in  this  period  was 
the  Erie  canal,  which  brought  the  Hudson 
river  directly  into  connection  with  the  Great 
Lakes.  This  insured  the  commercial  suprem 
acy  of  the  city  of  New  York  as  the  chief  out 
let  for  western  traffic.  At  the  time  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence  the  state  of  New 
York  ranked  seventh  among  the  thirteen  in 
population,  and  the  Indian  frontier  was  be 
tween  Albany  and  Utica.  In  the  census  of 
1820  the  city  of  New  York  for  the  first  time 
showed  a  larger  population  than  Philadelphia, 
and  the  state  came  to  the  head  of  the  list, 
instead  of  Virginia,  which  had  hitherto  been 
the  foremost  state.  It  was  the  westward 
migration  from  New  England  that  first  filled 
up  central  New  York  and  carried  the  state 
to  the  head  of  the  list.  The  Erie  canal  and 
steam  navigation  on  the  lakes  presently  car 
ried  this  migration  into  Michigan ;  but  it 
was  not  till  1837  that  that  state  was  admitted 
into  the  Union  as  a  balance  for  Arkansas, 
admitted  in  1836.  New  England  people  had 
meanwhile  occupied  the  northern  parts  of 


120    How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Illinois ;  but  it  was  not 
New  England  that  first  determined  the  char 
acter  of  the  young  West.  Long  before  the 
overflow  of  New  England  had  filled  rural  New 
York,  the  overflow  of  Virginia  and  North 
Carolina  had  made  the  states  of  Kentucky 
and  Tennessee,  and  a  hardy  population  from 
all  parts  of  the  Alleghenies  had  thrust  itself 
into  all  parts  of  the  West,  from  the  prairies  of 
Illinois  to  the  highlands  of  Alabama.  These 
people  were  as  different  from  the  slavehold- 
ing  planters  of  South  Carolina  or  Louisiana 
as  from  the  merchants  and  yeomanry  of  New 
England;  and  when  by  and  by  the  stress  of 
civil  war  came,  they  were  the  stout  ligament 
which  held  the  Union  together.  They  were 
rough  and  ready,  inclined  to  despise  the  refine 
ments  of  civilized  life,  very  loose  in  their  ideas 
of  finance,  and  somewhat  too  careless  in  their 
use  of  pistols.  They  were  intensely  Ameri 
can  withal,  cared  nothing  for  a  European 
civilization  of  which  they  knew  nothing, 
and  were  sufficient  unto  themselves.  These 
men  had  their  representative  statesman  in 


The  Rise  of  the  Democracy  121 


Thomas  Benton1  and  their  popular  hero  in 
Andrew  Jackson. 

In  the  presidential  election  of  1824  all  parties 
called  themselves  Republicans,  and  political 

1  He  did  not  represent  their  shaky  financial  notions, 
however ;  on  this  point  his  views  wrere  so  sound  that  he 
was  nicknamed  "  Old  Bullion." 


122   How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

issues  were  so  ill-defined  that  the  contest 
seemed  to  concern  itself  only  with  the  per 
sonal  merits  of  the  candidates.  The  real  but 
unrecognized  issue  was  between  the  notions 
of  the  young  democratic  West  and  the  polite, 
half-aristocratic  notions  of  the  old  Atlantic 
states.  The  four  candidates  were  John  Quincy 
Adams,  one  of  the  grandest  figures  in  Ameri 
can  history;  Henry  Clay,  the  genial  author 
of  the  Missouri  Compromise ;  William  Craw 
ford,  earliest  representative  alike  of  the  wire 
pullers  and  of  the  secessionists;  and  the  in 
vincible  soldier,  Andrew  Jackson.  The  latter 
had  the  greatest  number  of  electoral  votes, 
but  no  one  had  a  majority;  and  so  the  elec 
tion  was  thrown  into  the  House  of  Represent 
atives,  where  the  friends  of  Clay,  uniting  with 
the  friends  of  Adams,  secured  the  election  of 
the  latter.  Jackson's  friends  thought  that 
their  hero  had  been  ill-used ;  but  they  were 
made  happy  by  the  next  election,  in  1828, 
where  Adams  and  Jackson  were  the  only 
opposing  candidates,  and  the  former  obtained 
only  eighty-three  out  of  two  hundred  and 


The  Else  of  the  Democracy  123 

sixty-one  electoral  votes.  Jackson's  victory 
in  1828  was  the  victory  of  the  West  over  the 
East,  and  marked  the  rise  of  the  new  democ 
racy.  It  was  in  the  canvass  preceding  this 
election  that  Jackson's  supporters  assumed 


the  name  of  Democrats.  Their  opponents 
were  known  at  first  as  "  National  Republi 
cans,"  but  in  the  course  of  his  administra 
tion,  as  they  saw  fit  to  represent  Jackson 
as  a  kind  of  tyrant,  like  George  III,  they 


124   How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

took  the  name  of  "Whigs";  and  hence 
forth,  until  1854,  Whig  and  Democrat  were 
the  names  of  the  two  political  parties  in  the 
United  States. 

The  Whigs  approved  of  allowing  the  Fed 
eral  government  to  use  the  public  money  in 
building  roads,  dredging  rivers,  and  making 
other  internal  improvements ;  the  Democrats 
thought  that  such  things  ought  to  be  done 
by  the  local  governments  or  by  private  en 
terprise.  The  Whigs  espoused  the  policy  of 
taxing  the  whole  community  in  order  to  sup 
port  a  few  manufacturers  in  carrying  on  a 
business  which,  without  such  aid,  it  was 
presumed  would  be  a  losing  one.  This  was 
done  by  means  of  a  high  tariff  upon  imported 
goods.  It  was  ingeniously  called  "  protecting 
American  labor,"  and  was  glorified  by  Clay 
as  "  the  American  system,"  though  in  reality 
the  custom  is  as  old  as  human  greed,  and 
might  as  well  be  called  Asiatic  as  Ameri 
can.  The  Democrats  opposed  this  policy,  but 
not  always  intelligently.  Again,  the  Whigs 
were  in  favor  of  continuing  the  National  Bank 


125 


The  Rise  of  the  Democracy  127 

which  had  been  chartered  by  Congress  in  1816  ; 
the  Democrats  were  bitterly  opposed  to  it ; 
and,  with  regard  to  all  these  points — internal 
improvements,  tariff,  and  bank  —  the  Whigs 
favored  a  loose,  and  the  Democrats  a  strict, 
interpretation  of  the  Federal  Constitution. 

The  War  of  1812  had  made  it  difficult  to 
obtain  manufactured  goods  from  abroad,  and 
articles  of  an  inferior  quality  had  in  many  in 
stances  begun  to  be  made  in  the  United  States. 
Our  manufacturers  thought  this  scarcity  a 
desirable  thing,  and  tried  to  prolong  it  after 
the  end  of  the  war  by  taxing  imported  goods 
so  heavily  as  to  make  people  buy  their  infe 
rior  articles  instead.  One  effect  of  the  tariff 
has  been  to  prevent  American  goods  from  at 
taining  the  high  standard  of  excellence  which 
they  would  have  reached  under  a  system  of  free 
competition.  For  example,  if  Scotch  woolens 
were  to  be  admitted  free  of  duty,  American 
woolens  would  either  have  to  be  made  as 
excellent  as  the  Scotch,  or  people  would  stop 
buying  them  ;  and  accordingly  they  would  soon 
come  to  be  as  fine  as  the  Scotch  goods.  But 


128   How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

people  were  afraid  that  unless  foreign  compe 
tition  were  ruled  out,  it  would  be  impossible 
to  get  American  manufactories  well  started. 
High  tariffs  were  accordingly  adopted  in  1828 
and  1832. 

These  tariffs  were  bitterly  opposed  by  the 
southern  states,  except  Louisiana,  where  the 
sugar  planters  were  ready  to  admit  the  high- 
tariff  principle  in  order  to  apply  it  to  foreign 
sugars.  The  southerners  had  no  manufactures 
of  their  own,  and  naturally  preferred  to  buy 
good  clothes  and  good  tools  at  a  low  price, 
rather  than  poor  clothes  and  poor  tools  at 
a  high  price.  The  doctrine  of  the  Kentucky 
resolutions  of  1799  made  great  progress  in 
the  South;  and  in  1832  a  state  convention  in 
South  Carolina  declared  the  tariff  law  null 
and  void,  forbade  the  collection  of  duties  at 
any  port  in  the  state,  and  called  for  troops  to 
resist  the  Federal  government  if  necessary. 
This  was  "nullification."  It  found  no  favor 
in  the  eyes  of  Jackson,  though  he  disliked  the 
tariff  law  as  much  as  the  South  Carolinians. 
He  declared  that  "  the  Federal  Union  must 


The  Rise  of  the  Democracy  129 

and  shall  be  preserved,"  sent  an  armed  fleet 
to  Charleston  harbor,  and  warned  the  people 
of  South  Carolina  that  any  attempt  at  resist 
ing  the  law  would  be  put  down  with  a  high 
hand.  Presently,  in  1833,  a  new  tariff  law, 
known  as  the  "Compromise  Tariff,"  was  passed, 
and  some  concessions  were  made  which  afforded 


THE  MOHAWK  AND    HUDSON  RAILROAD,  1831 

Redrawn  from  an  old  sketch 

South  Carolina  an  opportunity  to  repeal  her 
ordinance  of  nullification. 

About  1830  the  United  States  was  enter 
ing  upon  an  era  of  more  rapid  progress  than 
had  ever  been  witnessed  before.  The  era  was 
quite  as  remarkable  for  the  civilized  world  as 
a  whole.  In  1830  the  first  American  railroad 
was  put  in  operation,  and  by  1840  nearly  all 
the  chief  cities  east  of  the  Alleghenies  were 
connected  by  rail,  and  the  system  was  rapidly 


130  How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

extending  itself  in  the  West.  The  effect  of  rail 
roads  was  especially  great  in  America,  where 
the  ordinary  roads  have  always  been  very 
bad  as  compared  with  those  of  Europe.  Their 
effect  in  hastening  the  growth  of  our  western 
country  by  and  by  surpassed  that  which  had 
been  wrought  by  steamboats.  In  1836  John 
Ericsson  invented  the  screw  propeller,  which 
required  much  less  fuel  than  the  paddle  wheel ; 
and  two  years  afterward  steamships  began  to 
make  regular  trips  across  the  Atlantic.  Pres 
ently  this  set  up  the  vast  emigration  of  labor 
ers  from  Europe,  which  has  been  going  on 
ever  since.  Our  cities  began  to  lose  their  vil 
lage-like  appearance;  in  1830  New  York  had 
a  population  of  rather  more  than  two  hundred 
thousand.  Agricultural  machines  began  to  be 
invented ;  friction  matches  came  into  use ;  an 
thracite  coal  came  in  to  aid  both  manufactures 
and  locomotion ;  and  in  1836  the  Patent  Office 
had  so  much  to  do  that  it  was  made  a  distinct 
bureau.  At  the  same  time  our  methods  of 
education  and  our  newspapers  were  improved, 
and  American  literature  began  to  attract  the 


The  Rise  of  the  Democracy  131 


world's  attention.  Before  1830,  Bryant,  Irv 
ing,  and  Cooper  had  become  distinguished ;  in 
the  decade  after  1830,  Longfellow,  Whittier, 
Hawthorne,  Holmes,  Bancroft,  and  Prescott 
appeared  on  the  scene,  soon  to  be  followed 
by  Emerson.  In  this  period  Daniel  Webster, 
already  famous  for  many  years,  was  at  the 
height  of  his  wonderful  power.  He  was  prob 
ably  the  greatest  orator  that  ever  lived,  after 
Demosthenes  and  Chatham,  and  as  a  master 
of  the  English  language  he  was  superior  to 
Chatham.  His  magnificent  speeches,  the  most 


132   How  the  United  States  'became  a  Nation 

impressive  passages  from  which  were  made  fa 
miliar  to  every  schoolboy,  contributed  greatly 
to  raise  the  love  of  the  Union  into  a  roman 
tic  sentiment  for  which  people  would  fight  as 
desperately  as  ever  cavalier  fought  in  defense 
of  his  king.  In  this  way  Webster  rendered 
incalculable  service,  and  not  a  bit  too  soon. 
For  humanitarian  movements  were  beginning 
to  mark  this  new  era ;  and  along  with  prison 
reform  and  temperance  societies  came  the  abo 
litionists,  with  their  assaults  upon  negro  slav 
ery,  bravely  led  in  the  press  by  William  Lloyd 
Garrison,  in  Congress  by  John  Quincy  Adams, 
who  in  1831  was  elected  to  the  House  of 
Representatives,  where  he  stayed  till  his  death 
in  1848.  The  southern  members  tried  to 
smother  the  discussion  of  the  subject  of  slav 
ery,  but  Adams  could  not  be  silenced,  and  in 
1836  he  went  so  far  as  to  enunciate  the  doc 
trine  upon  which  Mr.  Lincoln  afterward  rested 
his  proclamation  of  emancipation. 

Some  of  the  changes  which  marked  this 
new  era  were  by  no  means  changes  for  the 
better.  Hitherto  all  our  presidents,  taken 


133 


The  Rise  of  the  Democracy  135 

from  the  two  oldest  states,  Massachusetts  and 
Virginia,  had  been  men  of  aristocratic  type, 
with  well-trained  minds  and  polished  man 
ners,  like  European  statesmen  ;  and  all  ex 
cept  Monroe  had  been  men  of  extraordinary 
ability.  In  Jackson,  the  first  President  from 
beyond  the  Alleghenies,  the  idol  of  the  rough 
pioneer  West,  we  had  a  very  different  type 
of  man.  There  was  immense  native  energy, 
with  little  training ;  downright  honesty  of  pur 
pose,  with  a  very  feeble  grasp  of  the  higher 
problems  of  statecraft.  Jackson  was  a  man 
of  violent  measures  and  made  many  mistakes. 
His  greatest  mistake  was  the  use  of  govern 
ment  offices  as  rewards  for  his  friends  and 
adherents.  Heretofore  the  civil  service  had 
been  practically  independent  of  politics,  as  it 
is  to-day  in  England.  There  had  been  but 
one  instance  of  a  great  party  overthrow ;  that 
was  in  the  election  of  1800.  Jefferson's  fol 
lowers  then  wished  him  to  turn  Federalist 
postmasters  and  collectors  out  of  office,  and 
put  Republicans  in  their  places ;  but  he  had 
been  too  wise  to  do  so.  In  1829  Jackson 


136    How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

introduced  into  national  politics  the  principle 
of  "  rotation  in  office/'  by  which  government 
officials  were  liable  to  be  turned  out  every 
fourth  year,  not  for  any  misconduct,  but 
simply  to  make  room  for  hungry  applicants 
belonging  to  the  opposite  party.  Jackson 
was  not  the  inventor  of  this  system.  It  had 
already  been  tried  in  state  politics,  and  brought 
to  something  like  perfection  in  New  York.  It 
was  a  New  York  politician,  William  Marcy, 
who  first  used  the  phrase,  "To. the  victors 
belong  the  spoils,"  thereby  implying  that  a 
public  office  is  not  a  public  trust  but  a  bit  of 
plunder,  and  that  the  services  of  an  officer 
paid  by  the  people  are  due,  not  to  the  people, 
but  to  a  party  or  a  party  chief.  The  author 
of  the  phrase  doubtless  never  supposed  that 
he  was  making  one  of  the  most  infamous 
remarks  recorded  in  history ;  and  the  honest 
Jackson  would  probably  have  been  greatly 
surprised  if  he  had  been  allowed  a  glimpse 
of  the  future,  and  seen  that  he  was  intro 
ducing  a  gigantic  system  of  knavery  and  cor 
ruption  which  within  forty  years  would  grow 


The  Rise  of  the  Democracy  137 

into  the  most  serious  of  the  evils  threatening 
the  continuance  of  our  free  government. 

Jackson  made  another  mistake,  which  was 
trivial  compared  with   the   adoption   of   the 


spoils  system,  but  which  created  much  more 
disturbance  at  the  time.  His  antipathy  to 
the  National  Bank  led  him  not  only,  in  1832, 


138   How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

to  veto  the  bill  for  the  renewal  of  its  charter, 
but  in  the  following  year  to  withdraw  the 
public  money  deposited  in  the  bank,  and  dis 
tribute  it  among  various  state  banks.  This 
violent  measure  led  to  a  series  of  events 
which  in  1837  culminated  in  the  most  dis 
tressing  commercial  panic  that  had  ever  been 
known  in  America.  Martin  Van  Buren,  of 
New  York,  was  then  President,  having  been 
elected  in  1836  over  the  western  soldier, 
Harrison.  Van  Buren  belonged  to  Jackson's 
wing  of  the  Democratic  party,  in  the  ranks 
of  which  a  schism  was  appearing  between 
the  nullifiers  and  the  men  who  were  devoted 
to  the  Union.  He  Avas  what  would  now  be 
known  as  a  "  machine  politician,"  but  of  the 
more  honorable  sort.  His  administration  was 
a  fairly  able  one.  In  the  course  of  it  one 
phase  of  the  National  Bank  question  reached 
a  satisfactory  solution  in  the  so-called  sub- 
treasury  system,  which,  after  some  vicissi 
tudes,  was  finally  established  in  1846,  and  is 
still  in  force.  By  this  system  the  public  rev 
enues  are  not  deposited  in  any  bank,  but  are 


The  Rise  of  the  Democracy  139 

paid  over  on  demand  to  the  treasury  depart 
ment  by  the  collectors,  who  are  required  to 
give  bonds  for  the  proper  discharge  of  their 
duty.  The  establishment  of  this  system  was 


creditable  to  Van  Buren's  administration,  but 
the  panic  of  1837  caused  so  much  distress  as 
to  make  many  people  wish  for  a  change  in 
the  government.  Turning  to  their  own  uses 
the  same  kind  of  popular  sentiment  which 


140    How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

had  elected  Jackson,  the  Whigs  nominated 
again  the  plain  soldier,  Harrison,  who  had 
lived  in  a  log  cabin  and  had  hard  cider  on 
his  table.  In  the  famous  "  hard-cider  cam 
paign"  of  1840  Harrison  won  a  sweeping 


victory,  getting  two  hundred  and  thirty-four 
electoral  votes  to  Van  Buren's  sixty.  The 
Whigs  had  a  majority  in  both  houses  of  Con 
gress.  But  the  managers  of  the  party  had 
made  a  mistake  such  as  has  since  recurred 
in  American  politics.  For  Vice  President 


The  Rise  of  the  Democracy  JL41 

they  had  nominated  a  Democrat,  John  Tyler, 
of  Virginia,  in  the  hope  of  getting  votes  from 
those  Democrats  who  were  dissatisfied  with 
Jackson  and  Van  Buren.  Just  one  month 
after  Harrison's  inauguration  he  died,  and 
Tyler  became  President.  By  this  unexpected 
event  the  Whigs  lost  the  fruits  of  their  vic 
tory.  The  President  was  able,  by  his  vetoes, 
to  defeat  their  measures,  and  thus  their  at 
tempts  to  undo  the  work  of  Jackson  and  Van 
Buren,  as  regards  the  National  Bank,  ended 
in  failure. 

Under  Tyler's  administration,  questions  of 
foreign  policy,  involving  chances  of  war, 
again  came  into  the  foreground ;  but  they 
were  very  different  questions  from  those  which 
had  occupied  our  attention  in  the  begin 
ning  of  the  century,  and  the  mere  statement 
of  them  gives  a  vivid  impression  of  the  enor 
mous  growth  of  the  United  States  since  the 
War  of  1812.  The  northwestern  corner  of 
North  America,  down  to  the  parallel  of  54° 
40',  now  known  as  the  territory  of  Alaska, 
was  then  a  kind  of  appendage  to  Siberia, 


142    How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

and  belonged  to  Russia.  The  region  between 
Russian  America  and  California,  known  as 
Oregon,  was  claimed  by  the  United  States, 
on  the  ground  of  the  discoveries  of  Lewis 
and  Clark.  But  Great  Britain  also  had  claims 


upon  this  region,  and  since  1818  it  had  been 
subject  to  the  joint  occupation  of  Great  Brit 
ain  and  the  United  States.  But  by  1842  the 
American  stream  of  westward  migration, 
crossing  the  Rocky  mountains,  had  poured 


The  Rise  of  the  Democracy  143 

into  Oregon,  and  it  began  to  be  a  question 
how  this  vast  territory  should  be  divided. 
The  Americans  claimed  everything,  and  the 
Democrats  went  into  the  next  presidential 
campaign  with  the  alliterative  war  cry,  "  Fifty- 
four  forty  or  fight " ;  but  popular  interest  in 
the  question  was  not  strong  enough  to  sustain 
this  bold  policy.  Great  western  statesmen 
like  Benton  appreciated  the  importance-  of 
Oregon  much  better  than  great  eastern  states 
men  like  Webster ;  but  none  were  fully  alive 
to  its  importance,  and  the  southerners,  rep 
resented  by  Calhoun,  felt  little  interest  in  a 
territory  which  seemed  quite  unavailable  for 
the  making  of  slave  states.  Accordingly,  in 
1846  the  matter  was  compromised  with  Great 
Britain,  and  the  territory  was  divided  at  the 
forty-ninth  parallel,  all  above  that  line  being 
British,  all  below  American.  If  the  feeling 
of  national  solidarity  in  the  United  States 
had  been  nearly  as  strong  as  it  is  to-day,  we 
should  probably  have  insisted  upon  our  claim 
to  the  whole;  in  which  case  we  should  now, 
since  our  purchase  of  Alaska  from  Russia, 


144   How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

possess  the  whole  Pacific  coast  north  of  Mex 
ico  to  Bering  strait.  It  is  perhaps  to  be 
regretted  that  such  a  bold  policy  was  not 
pursued  in  1846.  It  had  many  chances  of 
success,  for  our  available  military  strength, 
all  things  considered,  was  then  probably  not 
inferior  to  that  of  Great  Britain. 

Very  different  was  the  popular  feeling  with 
regard  to  Texas.  That  magnificent  country, 
greater  in  extent  than  any  country  of  Europe 
except  Eussia,  had  been  settled  by  emigrants 
from  the  United  States,  and  in  1835  had 
rebelled  against  Mexican  rule.  In  1836  the 
American  General  Houston  had  defeated  the 
Mexican  General  Santa  Anna  in  the  decisive 
battle  of  San  Jacinto  and  won  the  independ 
ence  of  Texas.  After  this  the  slaveholders 
of  the  southern  states  wished  to  annex  Texas 
to  the  Union.  Lying  south  of  the  parallel  of 
36°  30',  it  might  become  a  slave  state,  and  it 
was  hoped  that  it  might  hereafter  be  divided 
into  several  states,  so  as  to  maintain  the  weight 
of  the  southerners  in  the  United  States  Senate. 
After  the  admission  of  Arkansas  in  1836,  and 


The  Rise  of  the  Democracy  145 

Michigan  to  balance  it  in  1837,  the  South  had 
no  more  room  for  expansion  unless  it  should 


acquire  new  territory;  whereas  the  North  had 
still  a  vast  space  westward  at  its  command. 


146    How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

It  seemed  likely  that  the  North  would  pres 
ently  gain  a  steady  majority  in  the  Senate; 
and  in  the  House  of  Representatives,  where 
strength  depended  on  population,  the  North 
was  constantly  gaining,  partly  because  the 
institution  of  slavery  prevented  the  South 
from  sharing  in  the  advantages  of  the  emi 
gration  from  Europe,  and  partly  for  other 
reasons  connected  with  the  inferiority  of 
slave  labor  to  free  labor.  It  was  therefore 
probable  that  before  long  the  North  would 
come  to  control  the  action  of  Congress,  and 
might  then  try  to  abolish  slavery.  This  was 
a  natural  dread  on  the  part  of  the  South,  and 
the  abolitionist  agitation  tended  to  strengthen 
and  exasperate  it.  The  only  safeguard  for 
the  South  seemed  to  be  the  acquisition  of 
fresh  territory,  and  thus  the  annexation  of 
Texas  came  now  to  furnish  the  burning  ques 
tion  in  politics  and  to  array  the  northern  and 
southern  states  against  each  other  in  a  con 
test  for  supremacy  which  could  only  be  settled 
by  an  appeal  to  arms.  In  the  presidential 
election  of  1844  the  Democratic  candidate 


The  Rise  of  the  Democracy  147 


was  James  K.  Polk  of  Tennessee  and  the 
Whig  candidate  was  Henry  Clay;  and  there 
was  a  third  nomination  which  determined  the 
result  of  the  election.  The  abolitionists  had 
put  forward  James  Birney  as  a  presidential 
candidate  in  1840,  but  had  got  very  few 
votes ;  they  now  put  him  forward  again. 
The  contest  was  close.  The  success  of  the 
Whigs  seemed  probable  until  the  weakness  of 
Clay's  moral  fiber  ruined  it,  —  a  lesson  for 
American  politicians,  by  which  too  few  have 


148   How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

had  the  good  sense  to  profit.  In  the  idle  hope 
of  catching  Democratic  votes,  he  published  a 
letter  favoring  the  annexation  of  Texas  at 
some  future  time.  This  device  met  the  fail 
ure  which  ought  to  follow  all  such  flimsy 
maneuvers.  It  won  no  Democratic  votes  for 
Clay,  but  angered  a  great  many  antislavery 
Whigs,  who  threw  away  their  votes  upon 
Birney  and  thus  carried  the  state  of  New 
York  over  to  Polk  and  elected  him  President. 
It  was  the  most  closely  contested  election  in 
our  history  except  those  of  1800,  1876,  and 
1884. 


THE  SLAVE  POWER 


149 


THE  SLAVE  POWER 

War  with  Mexico.  Wilmot  Proviso.  California.  Effects  of 
the  Compromise.  Kansas-Nebraska  bill.  The  struggle  for 
Kansas.  Dred  Scott.  The  crisis. 

The  Democratic  party  thus  reinstated  was 
quite  different  from  the  Democratic  party 
which  had  elected  Jackson  and  Van  Buren. 
Its  policy  was  now  shaped  mainly  by  the 
followers  of  Calhoun,  the  representatives  of 
slavery  and  nullification,  though  the  latter 
political  heresy  was  not  likely  to  assert  itself 
so  long  as  they  could  control  the  Federal 
government.  With  the  election  of  Polk  the 
North  and  South  are  finally  arrayed  in  oppo 
sition  to  each  other;  the  question  as  to  slav 
ery  comes  to  the  front,  and  stays  there  until 
the  Civil  War. 

In  1845  Texas  was  admitted  to  the  Union, 
with  the  understanding  that  it  might  here 
after  be  divided  so  as  to  make  several  slave 
states.  Mexico  was  offended,  but  no  occasion 

151 


152   How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

for  war  arose  until  it  was  furnished  by  bound 
ary  troubles  due  to  that  peculiar  craving  for 
territory  which  at  this  moment  possessed  the 
minds  of  the  slaveholders.  The  boundary  be 
tween  Texas  and  Mexico  was  a  matter  of 
dispute,  and  early  in  1846  Mr.  Polk  ordered 
General  Taylor  to  march  in  and  take  posses 
sion  of  the  disputed  territory.  This  action 
was  resented  by  Mexico  and  led  to  a  war, 
which  lasted  nearly  eighteen  months.  In  the 
course  of  it  California  was  conquered  by  Fre 
mont,  New  Mexico  by  Kearney,  and  the  north 
ern  portion  of  Mexico  by  Taylor;  while  Scott, 
landing  at  Yera  Cruz,  advanced  and  captured 
the  city  of  Mexico.  The  United  States  sol 
diers  vanquished  the  Mexicans  wherever  they 
found  them  and  whatsoever  the  disparity  of 
numbers.  Thus  at  Buena  Vista,  February  22, 
1847,  Taylor  routed  a  Mexican  army  outnum 
bering  him  more  than  four  to  one ;  and  some 
of  the  exploits  of  Doniphan  in  his  march  to 
Chihuahua  remind  us  of  the  Greeks  at  Cunaxa 
or  Arbela.  Many  incidents  of  the  war  were 
quite  romantic,  and  it  is  interesting  to  the 


The  Slave  Power  153 

student  of  history  as  having  been  the  school 
in  which  most  of  the   great  generals  of  our 


Civil  War  were  trained  to   their  work.     In 
February,  1848,  a  treaty  was  made  in  which 


154   How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

Mexico  gave  up  to  the  United  States  a  territory 
almost  as  extensive  as  that  which  Jefferson  had 
obtained  from  Napoleon.  It  brought  the  map 
of  the  United  States  very  nearly  to  what  it  is 
to-day,  except  for  the  acquisition  of  Alaska. 

This  immense  acquisition  of  territory  was  a 
most  fortunate  event  for  everybody  concerned 
in  it ;  but  its  immediate  effect  upon  our  poli 
tics  was  far  more  disturbing  than  anything 
which  had  occurred  since  1820.  The  antislav- 
ery  party  looked  upon  the  war  with  strong 
disfavor,  and  their  sentiments  found  expres 
sion  in  the  most  remarkable  political  poems 
of  modern  times,  the  first  series  of  Biglow 
Papers  by  James  Kussell  Lowell.  There  was 
a  renewal  of  the  sectional  strife  which  had 
been  quieted  for  a  time  by  the  Missouri  Com 
promise.  Slavery  had  been  prohibited  in  the 
new  territory  by  Mexican  law,  and  the  North 
wished  to  have  this  prohibition  kept  in  force, 
but  the  South  would  not  consent.  To  some 
the  simplest  solution  seemed  to  be  to  prolong 
the  Missouri  Compromise  line  from  the  Rocky 
mountains  to  the  Pacific,  but  neither  party 


The  Slave  Power 


155 


was  willing  to  give  up  so  much  to  the  other. 
Opposition  to  slavery  had  greatly  increased  at 


the  North  since  1820,  and  this  had  naturally 
increased  the  obstinacy  of  the  South,  so  that  it 
was  becoming  difficult  to  make  compromises. 


156   How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

In  1846  David  Wilmot,  a  Democratic  member 
of  Congress  from  Pennsylvania,  laid  down  the 
principle  upon  which,  though  not  adopted  at 
the  time,  the  North  was  destined  finally  to 
take  its  stand  and  march  to  victory.  By  the 
famous  Wilmot  Proviso  slavery  was  to  be  for 
ever  prohibited  in  the  whole  of  the  territory 
acquired  from  Mexico.  The  proviso  was  not 
adopted  in  Congress,  but  in  1848  it  called 
into  existence  the  Free-soil  party,  formed  by 
the  union  of  antislavery  Democrats  and  Whigs 
with  the  abolitionists.  This  party  nominated 
Martin  Van  Buren  for  President  and  Charles 
Francis  Adams  for  Vice  President.  The  Dem 
ocrats  nominated  Lewis  Cass  of  Michigan, 
and  the  Whigs  nominated  the  military  hero, 
Taylor ;  and  neither  of  these  two  parties  dared 
in  its  platform  to  say  a  word  about  the  one 
burning  question  of  the  day,  —  the  question 
of  slavery  in  the  new  territory.  The  Free- 
soilers  decided  the  election  by  drawing  from 
the  Democratic  vote  in  New  York,  and  so 
Taylor  became  President.  Taylor  was  by  far 
the  ablest  of  the  Presidents  between  Jackson 


The  Slave  Power 


157 


and  Lincoln.  He  was  brave,  honest,  and 
shrewd ;  and  though  a  Louisiana  slave  owner, 
he  was  unflinching  in  his  devotion  to  the 
Union.  He  received  warm  support  from  the 


great  Missouri  senator,  Thomas  Benton,  the 
most  eminent  in  ability  of  the  Jacksonian 
Democrats.  The  political  struggle  during 
Taylor's  administration  related  chiefly  to  the 
admission  of  California  as  a  state  in  the  Union. 


158   How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

Hitherto  the  westward  migration  had  gone 
on  at  a  steady  pace,  filling  up  one  area  after 
another  as  it  went  along.  In  1846  Iowa  was 
admitted  to  the  Union,  the  first  free  state 
west  of  the  Mississippi ;  in  1848  the  admis 
sion  of  Wisconsin  at  last  filled  up  the  region 
east  of  that  river ;  and  the  two  states  served 
as  a  counterweight  in  the  Senate  to  Florida 
and  Texas.  Now  the  immigration  took  a 
sudden  leap  to  the  Pacific  coast.  In  1848 
gold  was  discovered  in  California  and  people 
rushed  thither  from  all  points  of  the  compass 
in  quest  of  sudden  riches.  Within  a  year  the 
population  had  become  large  enough  to  en 
title  it  to  admission  to  the  Union,  and  there 
was  need  of  a  strong  government  to  hold  in 
check  the  numerous  ruffians  who  had  flocked 
in  along  with  honest  people.  In  1849  the 
people  of  California  agreed  upon  a  state  con 
stitution  forbidding  slavery  and  applied  for 
admission  to  the  Union.  The  southern  mem 
bers  of  Congress  hotly  opposed  this,  and 
threats  of  secession  began  to  be  heard.  The 
controversy  went  on  for  a  year,  until  it  was 


The  Slave  Power  159 

settled  by  a  group  of  compromise  measures 
devised  by  Clay,  who  thirty  years  before  had 
succeeded  so  well  with  his  Missouri  Com 
promise.  It  was  now  agreed  that  California 
should  be  admitted  as  a  free  state;  and  in 
return  for  this  concession  the  northern  mem 
bers  consented  to  a  very  stringent  law  for  the 
arrest  by  United  States  officers  of  fugitive 
slaves  in  the  northern  states.  The  region  be 
tween  California  and  Texas  was  to  be  organ 
ized  into  two  territories,  —  Utah  (including 
Nevada)  and  New  Mexico  (including  Arizona) ; 
and  the  question  whether  slavery  should  be 
allowed  in  these  territories  was  postponed. 
Before  these  measures  had  become  law  Mr. 
Taylor,  who,  supported  by  Benton,  had  taken 
strong  ground  against  the  threats  of  seces 
sion,  suddenly  died,  and  the  Vice  President, 
Millard  Fill  more,  became  President.  Mr.  Fill- 
more,  like  his  two  successors,  belonged  to 
the  class  of  politicians  whom  the  southerners 
called  "  doughfaces,"  —  men  who  were  ready 
to  make  almost  any  concessions  to  the  slave 
power  for  the  sake  of  avoiding  strife. 


160   How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 


Instead  of  bringing  quiet,  as  the  Missouri 
Compromise  had  done,  the  Compromise  of 
1850  was  the  prelude  to  more  bitter  and 
deadly  strife.  The  cruelties  attending  the 
execution  of  the  fugitive  slave  law  aroused 
fierce  indignation  at  the  North,  and  presently 
produced  a  book  which  had  an  enormous  sale, 
and  was  translated  into  almost  all  the  literary 
languages  of  the  world.  Uncle  Toms  Cabin, 
by  Mrs.  Harriet  Beecher  Stowe,  was  a  story 


161 


The  Slam  Power  163 

written  to  show  what  negro  slavery  really 
was.  The  book  was  written  in  a  wonderful 
spirit  of  fairness,  rather  understating  than 
exaggerating  the  evils  of  slavery,  and  it  car 
ried  all  the  more  conviction  for  that  reason. 
Its  influence  in  strengthening  the  antislavery 
feeling  at  the  North  must  have  been  incalcu 
lably  great.  Further  service  was  done  in  the 
same  direction  by  the  bold  speeches  and  lec 
tures  of  two  famous  Boston  orators,  the  lawyer 
Wendell  Phillips  and  the  minister  Theodore 
Parker.  At  the  same  time  the  political  atti 
tude  of  the  extreme  abolitionists  was  very 
unwise.  Some  of  them  called  the  Federal 
Constitution  a  "  covenant  with  hell,"  because 
it  permitted  slavery,  and  seemed  ready  to 
see  the  Union  broken  up  rather  than  submit 
to  the  demands  of  the  South.  Many  anti- 
slavery  Whigs,  without  going  to  such  lengths, 
became  disgusted  writh  their  party  for  approv 
ing  the  late  compromises,  and  abstained  from 
voting  at  the  next  election.  The  Whigs  having 
triumphed  in  1848  with  one  of  the  two  chief 
heroes  of  the  Mexican  War,  now  nominated 


164   How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

the  other,  General  Scott.  The  Democrats  nomi 
nated  Franklin  Pierce,  a  northern  "  dough 
face";  and  the  Free-soilers  nominated  John 
Hale,  much  the  ablest  of  the  three  candidates. 
There  were  two  hundred  and  fifty-four  electoral 


votes  for  Pierce  and  only  forty-two  for  Scott, 
and  this  crushing  defeat  put  an  end  to  the 
Whig  party.  Its  two  great  leaders,  Webster 
and  Clay,  had  just  been  removed  by  death. 
They  were  succeeded  by  such  men  as  Sumner, 


The  Slave  Power  165 

Seward,  and  Chase,  declared  enemies  of  slav 
ery.  Calhoun  had  also  died,  and  a  person  of 
much  smaller  caliber,  Jeft'erson  Davis,  suc 
ceeded  him  as  leader  of  the  slaveholders. 

The  slave  power  was  now  at  its  wits'  end 
for  new  territory  in  which  to  extend  itself. 
The  stars  in  their  courses  had  begun  to  fight 
against  it.  The  admission  of  California  gave 
the  North  a  preponderance  in  the  Senate ;  the 
wonderful  growth  of  the  northwestern  states, 
in  which  the  influence  of  New  England  ideas 
was  steadily  increasing,  was  giving  it  a  pre 
ponderance  in  the  lower  house ;  and  a  time 
was  likely  to  arrive  when  the  South  could  no 
longer  depend  upon  the  aid  of  "  doughface  " 
presidents.  It  seemed  necessary  at  once  to 
get  a  new  slave  state  to  balance  California, 
but  the  available  land  south  of  36°  30'  was 
all  used  up.  West  of  Arkansas  lay  the  Indian 
Territory,  while  it  was  a  long  way  across 
Texas  to  New  Mexico ;  and  on  these  lines  the 
westward  movement  of  white  men  was  likely 
to  advance  too  slowly.  The  impatience  of 
the  slave  power  vented  itself  but  imperfectly 


166   How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

in  secret  and  illegal  filibustering  expeditions 
against  Cuba  and  some  of  the  states  of  Cen 
tral  America.  It  was  hoped  that  Cuba  might 
be  conquered  and  annexed  as  a  slave  state; 
but  all  these  wild  schemes  failed,  and  Spain 
could  not  be  persuaded  to  sell  Cuba.  A  more 
practicable  scheme  seemed  to  be  to  get  control 
of  the  territory  lying  west  of  Missouri  and 
Iowa,  and  introduce  slavery  there.  This  land 
lay  to  the  north  of  36°  30',  and  was  therefore 
forever  to  be  free  soil,  according  to  the  terms 
of  the  Missouri  Compromise.  But  with  the 
aid  of  northern  "  doughfaces  "  the  South  might 
hope  to  obtain  the  repeal  of  that  celebrated 
compact;  and  now  once  more  its  wishes  were 
gratified,  so  far  as  mere  legislation  could  go, 
but  it  soon  became  apparent  that  it  was  only 
sowing  the  wind  to  reap  the  whirlwind.  The 
needed  northern  leader  was  found  in  Stephen 
Douglas,  an  Illinois  Democrat,  who  hoped  to 
become  President.  He  maintained  that  the 
Compromise  of  1850,  by  leaving  the  slavery 
question  undetermined  in  New  Mexico  and 
Utah,  had  virtually  repealed  the  Missouri 


The  Slave  Power 


167 


Compromise,  and  made  it  necessary  to  leave 
that  question  undetermined  in   the  Kansas- 


Nebraska  territory.  There  was  no  strict  logic 
in  this  doctrine;  for  Kansas-Nebraska,  being 
part  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase,  was  covered 


168   How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

by  the  Missouri  Compromise,  whereas  New 
Mexico-Utah  lay  wholly  outside  the  area  con 
templated  in  that  agreement.  But  in  the 
stress  of  political  emergencies  it  is  apt  to  fare 
ill  with  strict  logic.  In  1854  the  Kansas- 
Nebraska  bill  was  passed,  reopening  the  slav 
ery  question  in  the  lands  west  of  Missouri 
and  Iowa.  This  was  substantially  a  repeal 
of  the  Missouri  Compromise.  It  was  a  great 
and  alarming  concession  to  the  slave  power. 
Douglas  and  his  followers  intended  it  to  in 
sure  peace,  but  its  immediate  consequence 
was  the  great  Civil  \Yar. 

For  according  to  Douglas'  doctrine,  which 
was  known  as  "  squatter  sovereignty,"  it  was 
now  to  be  left  to  the  settlers  in  Kansas  and 
Nebraska  whether  they  would  have  slavery  or 
not.  It  was  a  plausible  doctrine  because  it 
appealed  to  that  strong  love  of  local  self- 
government  which  has  always  been  one  of 
the  soundest  political  instincts  of  the  Ameri 
can  people.  But  its  practical  result  was  to 
create  a  furious  rivalry  between  North  and 
South  as  to  which  should  get  settlers  enough 


T/ie  Slave  Power  169 

into  Kansas  to  secure  a  majority  of  popular 
votes  there.  The  issue,  thus  clearly  defined, 
at  once  wrought  a  new  division  between  polit 
ical  parties.  In  the  autumn  of  1854  all  the 
northern  men  who  were  opposed  to  the  exten 
sion  of  slavery,  whatever  their  former  party 
names  might  have  been,  combined  together 
under  the  name  of  "Anti-Nebraska  Men," 
and  succeeded  in  electing  a  majority  of  the 
House  of  Representatives.  Soon  afterward 
they  took  the  name  of  Republicans,  and  be 
cause  of  their  alleged  fondness  for  negroes, 
their  scornful  opponents  called  them  "Black 
Republicans." 

The  course  of  westward  migration  now  be 
came  determined  by  political  reasons.  Anti- 
slavery  societies  subscribed  money  to  hasten 
immigration  into  Kansas,  while  Missouri  and 
Arkansas  poured  in  a  gang  of  border  ruffians 
to  make  life  insecure  for  northern  immigrants 
and  deter  them  from  coming.  The  plains  of 
Kansas  soon  became  the  scene  of  wholesale 
robbery  and  murder.  The  preliminary  phase 
of  the  Civil  War  had  begun.  A  state  of  war 


170   How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

existed  in  Kansas  till  1858,  when  the  tide  of 
northern  immigration  had  become  so  strong 


as  to  sweep  away  all  obstacles  and  to  decide 
that  slavery  should  be  forbidden  there.  Mean 
while  the  debates  in  Congress  had  grown  so 


The  Slave  Power  171 

fierce  as  to  end  in  personal  violence.  In  1856 
Charles  Sumner  made  a  speech  which  exas 
perated  the  slaveholders ;  and  shortly  after 
ward  Preston  Brooks,  a  representative  from 
South  Carolina,  sought  out  Sumner  while  he 
was  writing  at  his  desk  in  the  senate  chamber, 
and  beat  him  over  the  head  with  a  stout  cane 
until  he  had  nearly  killed  him.  An  attempt 
was  made  to  have  Brooks  expelled  from  Con 
gress,  but  it  failed  of  the  requisite  two-thirds 
vote.  Brooks  then  resigned  his  seat  and  ap 
pealed  to  his  constituents,  who  reflected  him 
to  Congress  by  an  almost  unanimous  vote, 
while  many  southern  newspapers  loudly  ap 
plauded  his  conduct. 

In  the  presidential  campaign  of  1856  the 
Democrats  nominated  a  northern  "  dough 
face,"  James  Buchanan,  and  indorsed  the  prin 
ciple  of  squatter  sovereignty ;  the  Republicans 
nominated  the  western  explorer  Fremont,  and 
asserted  the  right  and  duty  of  Congress  to 
prohibit  slavery  in  the  territories,  thus  plant 
ing  themselves  upon  the  ground  of  the  Wilmot 
Proviso.  A  small  remnant  of  "  doughface  " 


172   How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

Whigs  nominated  Fillmore,  and  tried  to  turn 
attention  away  from  the  great  question  at  issue 
by  protesting  against  the  too  hasty  natural 
ization  of  foreign-born  citizens.  Buchanan 


obtained  one  hundred  and  seventy-four  electo 
ral  votes,  Fremont  one  hundred  and  fourteen, 
and  Fill  more  eight.  The  large  Republican  vote 
showed  that  the  northern  people  were  at  last 
awakening  to  the  danger,  and  it  astonished  and 


The  Slave  Power  173 

alarmed  the  South.  The  secessionist  feeling 
was  diligently  encouraged  by  southern  leaders 
who  had  political  ends  to  subserve  by  it.  The 
slave  power  became  more  aggressive  than 
ever.  The  renewal  of  the  African  slave 
trade,  which  had  been  forbidden  since  1808, 
was  demanded ;  and  without  waiting  for  the 
question  to  be  settled,  the  infamous  traffic  was 
resumed  on  a  considerable  scale  and  with 
scarcely  any  attempt  at  concealment.  In  the 
summer  and  autumn  of  1857  the  English  fleet 
which  watched  the  African  coast,  charged 
with  the  duty  of  suppressing  the  slave  trade, 
captured  twenty-two  vessels  engaged  in  this 
business,  and  all  but  one  of  these  were  Amer 
ican.  By  1860  the  trade  had  assumed  large 
proportions,  and  was  openly  advertised  in  the 
southern  newspapers.  Not  satisfied  with  this, 
the  slaveholders  strove  to  enlist  the  power  of 
the  Federal  government  in  actively  protecting 
their  baneful  institution.  The  principle  of 
squatter  sovereignty  had  not  served  their 
purpose,  for  they  could  not  compete  with  the 
North  in  sending  settlers  to  Kansas,  and  in 


174   How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

the  struggle  there  they  were  already  getting 
worsted.  They  accordingly  threw  squatter 
sovereignty  to  the  winds  and  demanded  that 
the  Federal  government  should  protect  slavery 
in  all  the  territories.  The  question  was  brought 
to  the  test  in  a  case  which  was  decided  in  the 
Supreme  Court  in  1857.  Dred  Scott,  a  slave 
who  had  been  taken  by  his  owner  from  Mis 
souri  into  free  territory,  brought  suit  to  obtain 
his  freedom.  Of  the  nine  judges  of  the  Su 
preme  Court,  five  were  slaveholders  and  some 
of  the  others  were  doughfaces.  When  the 
case  was  at  last  brought  before  them,  it  was 
decided  that,  according  to  the  Constitution, 
slaves  were  not  persons  but  property,  and  that 
slave  owners  could  migrate  from  one  part  of 
the  Union  to  another  and  take  their  negroes 
with  them,  just  as  they  could  take  their  horses 
and  cows,  or  the  bank  notes  in  their  waistcoat 
pockets.  Two  of  the  judges,  Benjamin  Curtis 
of  Massachusetts  and  John  McLean  of  Ohio, 
delivered  dissenting  opinions. 

The  revival  of  the  African  slave  trade  at 
tracted  little  notice  at  the  time,  in  comparison 


The  Slave  Power  175 

with  the  Dred  Scott  decision.  The  effect  of 
the  two,  taken  together,  would  have  been  to 
drown  the  whole  Union  in  a  deluge  of  bar 
barism,  to  blight  the  growth  of  the  Ameri 
can  people  both  materially  and  morally,  and 
to  make  us  a  nuisance  in  the  eyes  of  the 
civilized  world.  The  northern  people  refused 
to  accept  the  verdict  of  the  Supreme  Court, 
and  the  northern  Democrats,  led  by  Douglas, 
became  unwilling  to  cooperate  any  longer 
with  the  Democrats  of  the  South.  Some  of 
them  drifted  into  the  Republican  party,  others 
tried  to  maintain  the  already  effete  principle 
of  squatter  sovereignty  ;  but  nearly  all  were 
driven  to  the  unwelcome  conclusion  that  the 
day  of  compromises  was  gone.  Thus  North 
and  South  were  at  last  definitely  arrayed 
against  each  other,  and  the  air  was  full  of 
dismal  forebodings  of  war.  In  the  autumn 
of  1859  a  blow  was  struck,  slight  enough  in 
itself,  but  prophetic  of  the  coming  storm. 
John  Brown,  a  Connecticut  man  of  the  old 
Puritan  type,  had  been  an  antislavery  leader 
in  the  Kansas  fights.  Now  with  fanatical 


i76  How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

fervor  he  made  up  his  mind  to  inaugurate  a 
crusade  against  the  slave  power.  With  a 
handful  of  followers  he  attacked  the  arsenal 


at  Harper's  Ferry,  in  the  hope  of  getting 
arms  and  setting  up  in  the  wild  mountains 
of  that  neighborhood  an  asylum  for  fugitive 
slaves.  He  was,  of  course,  captured  and  put 


The  Slave  Power  177 

to  death,  but  his  daring  act  sounded  the  key 
note  of  the  approaching  conflict.  For  that 
very  reason  he  got  at  the  moment  but  little 
sympathy  in  the  North,  where  the  Republican 
majority,  content  with  the  moderate  policy  of 
excluding  slavery  from  the  territories,  were 
very  unwilling  to  be  considered  allies  of  the 
extreme  abolitionists,  whom  they  regarded  as 
disturbers  of  the  peace. 

In  the  presidential  election  of  1860  there 
were  four  candidates.  The  southern  Demo 
crats  had  separated  from  the  northern  Dem 
ocrats,  the  Whig  doughfaces  were  not  yet 
extinct,  while  the  Republicans  were  daily 
waxing  in  strength.  The  Republicans  nom 
inated  Abraham  Lincoln  of  Illinois,  and  de 
clared  that  the  Federal  government  must  for 
bid  slavery  in  the  territories.  The  southern 
Democrats  nominated  John  Breckenridge  of 
Kentucky,  and  declared  that  the  Federal  gov 
ernment  must  protect  slavery  in  the  terri 
tories.  These  two  parties  had  the  courage  of 
their  convictions ;  the  others  shuffled,  but  in 
different  ways. 


178   How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

The  northern  Democrats,  in  nominating 
Douglas,  took  their  stand  upon  a  principle, 
though  it  was  one  that  had  already  been 


proved  inadequate;  they  left  the  question 
of  slavery  in  each  territory  to  be  decided  by 
the  people  who  should  settle  in  the  territory; 


The  Slave  Power  179 

but  in  order  to  catch  southern  votes,  they 
made  a  concession  similar  to  that  which  Clay 
had  made  in  1844,  and  vaguely  announced 
themselves  as  willing  to  submit  to  the  decision 
of  the  Supreme  Court.  This  weakness,  in 
presence  of  the  Dred  Scott  verdict,  gained 
them  no  votes  at  the  South,  where  they  could 
not  outbid  Breckenridge,  and  it  lost  them 
many  votes  at  the  North. 

The  still  surviving  remnant  of  doughface 
Whigs  nominated  John  Bell  of  Tennessee, 
and  declared  themselves  in  favor  of  "the 
Constitution,  the  Union,  and  the  enforcement 
of  the  laws," — a  phrase  which  might  mean 
almost  anything.  These  good  people  were  so 
afraid  of  war  that  they  would  fain  keep  the 
peace  by  shutting  their  eyes  and  persuading 
themselves  that  the  terrible  slavery  question 
did  not  really  exist,  and  that  all  would  go 
well  if  men  would  only  be  good  and  kind  to 
one  another. 

In  the  electoral  college  Lincoln  obtained 
one  hundred  and  eighty  votes,  Breckenridge 
seventy-two,  Bell  thirty-nine,  and  Douglas 


180   How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

twelve.  The  popular  vote  for  Douglas  was 
very  large,  but  it  was  not  so  distributed  as 
to  gain  a  majority  in  any  state  except  Mis 
souri  ;  besides  the  nine  electoral  votes  of  that 
state  he  obtained  three  in  New  Jersey.  The 
result  of  the  election  was  a  decisive  victory 
for  the  Republicans.  Its  significance  was  far- 
reaching.  It  not  only  meant  the  overthrow 
of  the  Dred  Scott  doctrine  and  squatter  sover 
eignty,  but  it  even  went  back  of  the  Missouri 
Compromise,  and  put  an  immediate  stop  to 
the  extension  of  slavery  into  the  territories. 
It  said  not  a  word  about  the  abolition  of  slav 
ery  in  states  where  it  already  existed,  but  it 
meant  that  hereafter  free  labor  was  to  have 
enormous  room  for  expansion,  while  slave 
labor  was  to  have  none. 


THE  CIVIL  WAE 


181 


THE   CIVIL   WAR 

The  North  and  South  in  1860.  Fort  Sumter  and  Bull  Run. 
Affair  of  the  Trent.  Success  in  the  West.  Merrimac  and 
Monitor.  McClellan  in  Virginia.  Western  campaigns. 
Emancipation  of  the  slaves.  The  great  crisis  of  the  war. 
Chattanooga.  Combined  operations  under  Grant.  End 
of  the  war. 

The  year  of  Lincoln's  election  was  the  cen 
sus  year  in  which  the  population  of  the  United 
States  first  showed  itself  greater  than  that  of 
its  mother  country.  In  1776  the  population  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland  was  about  8,000,000, 
and  that  of  the  United  States  about  3,000,000. 
In  1860  the  population  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland  was  about  29,000,000,  and  that  of 
the  United  States  was  over  31,000,000.  The 
agricultural  products  of  the  United  States  far 
surpassed  in  volume  those  of  any  other  coun 
try,  and  in  merchant  shipping  we  were  second 
only  to  Great  Britain,  —  a  fact  curious  and 
sad  to  contemplate  now,  when  our  idiotic 

183 


184   How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

navigation  laws  have  succeeded  in  nearly 
destroying  our  merchant  marine.  Between 
1830  and  1860  the  growth  of  American  civ 
ilization  had  been  prodigious  in  all  directions, 
—  in  .facilities  of  travel  and  exchange,  in  home 
comforts,  in  manufactures,  in  literature  and 
art,  and,  above  all,  in  that  awakening  of 
moral  sense  which  enabled  us  to  pass  un 
scathed  through  the  terrible  ordeal  of  the 
next  four  years. 

In  all  this  material  and  moral  progress  the 
South  had  by  far  the  smaller  share;  not  be 
cause  of  any  natural  inferiority  in  the  people, 
but  simply  because  of  the  curse  of  slavery, 
which  blighted  everything  within  its  reach. 
Where  labor  was  held  in  disrespect,  as  the 
mark  of  an  inferior  caste,  immigration  would 
not  come ;  railroads,  commerce,  and  manufac 
tures  would  not  thrive  ;  ideas  from  other  parts 
of  the  modern  world  were  not  kindly  received  ; 
and  the  advance  of  civilization  was  accordingly 
checked.  In  1860,  besides  their  4,000,000 
negro  slaves,  the  seceding  states  had  a  white 
population  of  about  4,000,000  with  which  to 


TJie  Civil  War  185 

contend  against  23,000,000  at  the  North ;  and 
this  enormous  disparity  was  further  increased 
by  the  still  greater  superiority  of  the  North 
in  material  resources.  The  struggle  of  the 
South  for  four  years  against  such  odds  showed 
of  what  heroic  stuff  its  people  were  made ; 
but  they  had  also  one  great  military  advan 
tage  which  went  far  toward  neutralizing  these 
odds.  To  win  their  independence  it  was  not 
necessary  for  them  to  conquer  the  North  or 
any  part  of  it,  but  only  to  defend  their  own 
frontier;  whereas,  on  the  contrary,  for  the 
North  to  succeed,  it  was  necessary  for  its 
armies  to  effect  a  military  occupation  of  the 
whole  vast  southern  country,  and  this  was  in 
some  respects  a  greater  military  task  than 
had  ever  been  undertaken  by  any  civilized 
government. 

In  planning  secession  the  southern  leaders 
realized  how  great  this  military  advantage 
was,  and  they  counted  upon  three  other  ad 
vantages,  which,  however,  they  failed  to 
obtain.  If  they  could  have  won  these  three 
other  advantages,  they  might  have  succeeded 


186   How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

in  establishing  their  independence.  First, 
they  expected  that  all  the  slave  states  would 
join  in  the  secession  movement,  which  was  far 
from  being  the  case.  Secondly,  they  hoped 
that  northern  .Democrats  would  offer  such 
opposition  to  the  Republican  administration 
as  to  paralyze  its  action.  In  this  they  were 
sadly  disappointed.  As  soon  as  it  came  to 
war,  the  great  majority  of  northern  Demo 
crats  loyally  supported  the  government;  and 
the  party  of  obstructionists,  known  as  "  Peace 
Democrats,"  and  nicknamed  "copperheads," 
was  too  small  to  do  much  harm.  T/iirdly, 
the  southern  leaders  hoped  to  get  aid  from 
England  and  France.  They  believed  that 
the  English  manufactories  were  so  dependent 
upon  their  cotton  that  the  English  govern 
ment  would  not  allow  their  coast  to  be  block 
aded.  "  Cotton  is  king,"  they  said.  Then 
the  French  emperor,  Napoleon  III,  had  designs 
upon  Mexico  that  were  incompatible  with  the 
Monroe  doctrine,  and  he  would  be  glad  to 
see  the  power  of  the  United  States  divided. 
In  these  hopes,  too,  they  were  disappointed. 


TJie  Civil  War 


187 


Napoleon  was  desirous  of  recognizing  the  in 
dependence  of  the  South,  but  unwilling  to  take 
such  a  step,  save  in  concert  with  England, 


and  he  was  unable  to  persuade  England.  In 
the  latter  country  there  was  much  difference 
of  sentiment,  the  working  people  mainly  sym 
pathizing  with  the  North,  and  fashionable 


188   How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

society  with  the  South;  but  in  spite  of  great 
suffering  from  scarcity  of  cotton,  the  govern 
ment  could  not,  without  glaring  inconsistency, 
while  suppressing  the  African  slave  trade  with 
one  hand,  lend  support  to  the  principal  slave 
power  on  earth  with  the  other.  The  most  it 
could  do  was  to  wink  at  the  departure  of  a  few 
blockade  runners  and  privateers  from  British 
ports. 

As  soon  as  the  election  of  1860  showed  that 
the  slave  power  could  no  longer  control  the 
policy  of  the  Federal  Union,  the  state  of  South 
Carolina  called  a  convention,  which  on  the 
20th  December  passed  its  ordinance  of  seces 
sion.  Other  states  in  which  the  secessionist 
party  was  not  quite  so  strong  now  thought 
it  necessary  to  stand  by  South  Carolina,  and 
in  the  course  of  January,  1861,  Georgia, 
Alabama,  Florida,  Mississippi,  Louisiana,  and 
Texas  passed  ordinances  of  secession.  The 
other  slave  states  still  held  aloof,  political  opin 
ions  being  much  divided.  In  general  their 
people  disapproved  of  secession,  but  did  not 
recognize  the  right  of  the  Federal  government 


189 


The  Civil  War  191 

to  defend  itself  by  making  war  against  the 
rebellion  in  a  seceding  state.  This  doctrine 
found  expression  in  the  annual  message  of 
President  Buchanan,  and  his  feeble  attitude 
encouraged  the  seceders  to  believe  that  by  a 
brave  show  of  force  they  might  succeed  in 
effecting  their  purpose  without  war.  In  Feb 
ruary,  1861,  delegates  from  six  of  the  seced 
ing  states  met  at  Montgomery  in  Alabama, 
organized  a  government  known  as  the  "  Con 
federate  States  of  America,"  adopted  a  consti 
tution,  and  chose  Jefferson  Davis  for  President 
and  Alexander  Stephens  of  Georgia  for  Vice 
President.  Their  term  of  office  was  to  be 
six  years.  Many  United  States  forts  and 
arsenals  were  seized,  but  a  few,  and  more  par 
ticularly  Fort  Sumter,  in  Charleston  harbor, 
held  out.  The  South  Carolinians  prepared  to 
attack  Fort  Sumter,  and  succeeded  in  prevent 
ing  Buchanan's  government  from  sending  sup 
plies  thither.  When  Mr.  Lincoln  succeeded  to 
office  he  sent  a  fleet  to  aid  Fort  Sumter ;  and 
as  soon  as  the  South  Carolinians  heard  of  this 
they  fired  upon  the  fortress  and  captured  it 


192   How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

without  bloodshed.  This  event  aroused  fierce 
excitement  throughout  the  North,  for  it  showed 
people  what  they  had  hitherto  been  extremely 
unwilling  to  believe,  —  that  the  South  was 


ready  to  fight,  and  could  not  be  curbed  with 
out  war.  April  15,  two  days  after  the  fall  of 
Fort  Sumter,  the  President  called  for  75,000 
troops  to  put  down  the  rebellion,  and  the 


193 


The  Civil  War  195 


FORT  SUMTER  AFTER  THE  BOMBARDMENT 

From  a  photograph 

response  was  so  hearty  that  within  two  months 
200,000  men  were  under  arms.  The  first  blood 
was  shed  on  the  19th,  the  anniversary  of  the 
battle  of  Lexington,  when  a  Massachusetts  regi 
ment,  hurrying  to  the  defense  of  the  Federal 
capital,  was  fired  upon  by  a  mob  in  Baltimore. 
Many  people  in  the  border  states  were  en 
raged  by  Mr.  Lincoln's  call  for  troops.  The 
governors  of  Arkansas,  Tennessee,  North  Caro 
lina,  and  Virginia  refused  to  obey,  and  those 


196    How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

states  seceded  from  the  Union  and  joined  the 
Confederacy,  but  not  with  their  full  force. 
The  people  of  the  Allegheny  mountains  were 
loyal  to  the  Union ;  in  eastern  Tennessee  they 


MONTGOMERY,  ALABAMA,  FEBRUARY  8,  1861 

From  a  contemporary  print 

aided  the  Federals  as  far  as  possible ;  in  Vir 
ginia  they  seceded  from  their  own  state,  and 
formed  a  new  government,  known  as  the 
state  of  West  Virginia,  which  was  afterward 


The  Civil  War 


197 


admitted  into  the  Union.  Even  thus  curtailed, 
the  accession  of  Virginia  to  the  Confederacy 
increased  its  military  strength  enormously. 
Its  capital  was  at  once  removed  from  Mont 
gomery  up  to  Richmond,  and  it  became  much 


CONFEDERATE  CAPITOL  AT  RICHMOND 

From  a  print 

easier  to  threaten  Washington  or  to  invade 
the  North.  Virginia  was,  besides,  the  great 
est  and  richest  of  the  slave  states,  and  fur 
nished  the  southern  army  with  its  ablest  lead 
ers,  many  of  whom — such  as  Lee,  Johnston, 


198   How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

Jackson,  and  Ewell  —  were  opposed  to  seces 
sion,  but  thought  it  right  to  govern  their  own 
course  by  that  of  their  state. 

Immense  consequences  now  hung  upon  the 
action  of  the  other  three  border  states.  Mis 
souri  was  the  most  powerful  slave  state  ex 
cept  Virginia,  and  the  geographical  position 
of  Missouri,  Kentucky,  and  Maryland  was  of 
incalculable  military  importance.  If  these 
three  states  had  joined  the  Confederacy,  they 
might  have  turned  the  scale  in  its  favor. 
Maryland  remained  firm  through  the  stead 
fast  loyalty  of  her  governor  and  the  presence 
of  Federal  troops.  In  Kentucky  and  Missouri, 
where  the  governments  were  disloyal,  the  sit 
uation  soon  became  stormy  and  doubtful. 

The  first  campaign  east  of  the  Mississippi 
was  in  West  Virginia,  from  which  the  Con 
federate  troops  were  driven  in  July  by  Gen 
eral  McClellan.  At  the  same  time  popular 
impatience  prevailed  upon  General  Scott  to 
allow  a  premature  and  imprudent  advance 
towards  Richmond.  On  July  21  General 
McDowell  had  nearly  accomplished  the  defeat 


The  Civil  War 


199 


of  General  Joseph  Johnston  in  the  battle  of 
Bull  Kun,  when  fresh  southern  troops  from 
the  Shenandoah  valley  arrived  upon  the  scene, 
and  the  Federals  were  put  to  flight.  Until 


200   How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

this  new  arrival  the  forces  were  about  equally 
matched  in  numbers.  Some  five  thousand  men 
were  killed  and  wounded,  so  that  it  was  the 
bloodiest  battle  that  had  yet  been  fought  in 
America  by  white  men;  but  its  only  military 
significance  was  that  it  made  the  South  over 
confident,  while  it  nerved  the  North  to  greater 
efforts.  Until  the  following  spring  there  were 
no  important  operations  in  the  East,  except 
that  Port  Royal  and  a  few  other  places  on  the 
coast  were  captured  and  held  as  convenient 
stations  for  the  blockading  fleet.  The  blockade 
was  soon  made  effective  along  the  whole  length 
of  the  southern  coast  from  the  Potomac  to  the 
Rio  Grande,  an  achievement  which  most  people 
had  thought  impossible,  The  command  of  the 
Army  of  the  Potomac  was  given  to  McClellan 
immediately  after  Bull  Run,  and  in  November 
he  succeeded  Scott  as  commander  in  chief  of 
the  Federal  armies.  He  showed  great  skill  in 
organizing  the  army,  which,  under  his  training, 
became  an  excellent  instrument  of  warfare. 

Toward  the  end  of  the  year  we  came  near 
getting  into  serious  trouble  with  Great  Britain. 


The  Civil  War  201 

Two  southern  gentlemen,  Mason  and  Slidell, 
were  sent  out  by  the  Confederacy  as  commis 
sioners  to  England  and  France  to  seek  aid 
from  those  powers.  They  ran  the  blockade, 
and  at  Havana  took  passage  for  England  in 
the  Trent,  a  British  steamer.  Some  distance 
out  the  Trent  was  overhauled  by  an  American 
war  vessel  under  Captain  Wilkes,  and  the  two 
Confederate  agents  were  taken  out  and  car 
ried  to  Boston  harbor,  where  they  were  impris 
oned  in  Fort  Warren.  This  was  an  exercise 
of  the  right  of  search  which  the  United  States 
government  had  always  condemned,  and  to 
put  an  end  to  which  it  had  gone  to  war  with 
Great  Britain  in  1812.  The  right  had  been 
relinquished  by  Great  Britain  in  1856.  It 
was  impossible  for  the  United  States  to  uphold 
the  act  of  Captain  Wilkes  without  deserting 
the  principles  which  it  had  always  maintained. 
Mr.  Lincoln  therefore  promptly  disavowed  the 
act  and  surrendered  the  prisoners,  although 
such  a  course  was  made  needlessly  difficult  for 
him  by  the  blustering  behavior  of  the  British 
government,  which  had  immediately  begun 


202   How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

to  threaten  war  and  get  troops  ready  to  send 
to  Canada. 

In  Missouri  the  secessionist  party  was  very 
strong,  and  controlled  the  state  government ; 
but  it  was  completely  defeated  by  the  boldness 
and  sagacity  of  Francis  Blair  and  Nathaniel 
Lyon,  who  in  May  and  June,  1861,  overturned 
the  government  and  set  up  a  loyal  one  in  its 
place.  The  prompt  action  of  these  two  men 
saved  Missouri  to  the  Union.  After  a  brief 
career  of  victory  Lyon  was  defeated  and 
killed,  August  10,  in  a  severe  battle  at  ^Yil- 
son's  Creek.  The  Confederates  gained  little 
from  their  slight  success  and  their  hold  grew 
weaker,  until,  in  March,  1862,  they  were  thor 
oughly  and  decisively  defeated  at  Pea  Ridge, 
in  Arkansas,  by  General  Curtis. 

Meanwhile  in  Kentucky  the  state  govern 
ment  had  begun  by  trying  to  maintain  an 
impossible  attitude  of  neutrality,  but  the 
Union  sentiment  grew  stronger  and  stronger, 
until  in  September  the  Confederate  general, 
Polk,  invaded  Kentucky  and  occupied  the 
bluffs  at  Columbus,  blocking  the  descent  of 


The  Civil  War  203 

the  Mississippi  river.  Kentucky  now  declared 
for  the  Union,  and  General  Grant  entered  the 
state  from  Illinois  and  anticipated  Polk  in 
securing  the  mouths  of  the  Tennessee  and 
Cumberland  rivers,  two  great  streams  which 
were  to  serve  as  military  highways  by  which 
the  Union  armies  were  to  penetrate  into  the 
heart  of  the  Confederacy.  This  was  for  Grant 
the  beginning  of  a  long  and  successful,  though 
fiercely  contested,  advance.  The  Confederates 
had  set  up  a  defensive  line  from  Columbus  on 
the  Mississippi  river  to  Cumberland  Gap  in 
the  Alleghenies,  and  placed  in  command  of  it 
Sidney  Johnston,  an  officer  of  high  reputation. 
His  headquarters  were  at  Bowling  Green,  and 
he  was  confronted  by  a  Federal  army  under 
General  Buell.  This  was  the  middle  one  of 
the  three  great  Federal  armies  and  came  to 
be  known  as  the  Army  of  the  Cumberland. 
The  center  of  the  Confederate  line  was  at 
Forts  Henry  and  Donelson,  strongholds  in 
tended  to  bar  the  ascent  of  the  two  great  riv 
ers.  This  center  was  confronted  by  Grant  with 
troops  which  presently  formed  the  western 


204   How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 


one  of  the  three  great  Federal  armies  and  was 
known  as  the  Army  of  the  Tennessee.  The 
right  of  the  Confederate  line  was  at  Millspring, 
and  in  January  it  was  thoroughly  defeated  by 
the  extreme  left  division  of  Buell's  army  under 
General  Thomas.  In  February,  aided  by  the 
river  fleet,  Grant  captured  Fort  Henry  and 
Fort  Donelson,  taking  fifteen  thousand  pris 
oners  and  breaking  through  the  center  of  the 
Confederate  line.  Johnston  and  Polk  were 


205 


The  Civil  War  207 

now  obliged  to  retreat  for  fear  of  being  cut 
off.  Kentucky  was  secured  to  the  Union 
and  the  greater  part  of  Tennessee  recovered. 
Andrew  Johnson  was  appointed  military  gov 
ernor  of  the  state. 

The  Confederates  set  up  their  second  defen 
sive  line  along  the  railroad  from  Memphis  to 
Chattanooga  and  began  massing  their  forces  on 
this  line  at  Corinth.  The  armies  of  Grant  and 
Buell  advanced  to  attack  them  there.  Both 
these  armies  were  now  moving  under  the  direc 
tions  of  General  Halleck,  who  was  intending  to 
come  from  St.  Louis  and  take  command  in  the 
field.  Before  he  arrived  there  was  a  great 
battle.  Grant  was  at  Pittsburg  Landing  on 
the  west  bank  of  the  Tennessee  river,  about 
twenty  miles  from  Corinth,  awaiting  the  ar 
rival  of  Buell's  army.  Johnston  moved  to 
attack  and  crush  him  there  before  the  junc 
tion  of  the  armies  could  be  effected.  There 
ensued  on  April  6  and  7  the  battle  of  Shiloh, 
in  which  nearly  one  hundred  thousand  men 
were  engaged,  and  lost  one  fourth  of  their 
number  in  killed  and  wounded.  Johnston, 


208   How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

who  was  one  of  the  slain,  came  near  effect 
ing  his  purpose,  but  Grant's  resistance  was 
stubborn,  and  at  the  close  of  the  first  day 
three  divisions  of  Buell's  army  came  upon 
the  scene,  so  that  next  day  the  Confederates 
were  defeated.  This  battle  decided  the  fate 
of  Corinth,  which,  however,  did  not  fall  for 
several  weeks,  because  the  incapable  Halleck 
now  took  command  of  the  Federals. 

While  these  things  were  going  on  the  Fed 
eral  fleet  under  Farragut  captured  New  Orleans 
and  laid  open  the  Mississippi  river  up  to  Vicks- 
burg;  and  the  river  fleet,  at  first  with  the  aid 
of  a  small  army  under  Pope,  captured  Island 
Number  10  and  then  annihilated  the  Confed 
erate  river  fleet  at  Memphis.  The  fall  of  that 
city  and  of  Corinth  broke  down  the  second 
Confederate  line  of  defense  and  laid  open 
Vicksburg  on  the  one  hand  and  Chattanooga  on 
the  other  to  the  attack  of  the  Federals.  Thus 
the  first  year  of  active  warfare  in  the  West, 
from  June,  1861,  to  June,  1862,  was  an  almost 
unbroken  career  of  victory  for  the  Federal 
armies.  To  complete  the  conquest  of  the 


The  Civil  War 


209 


Mississippi  it  was  necessary  to  take  Vicksburg, 
and  its  outpost,  Port  Hudson,  which  between 


I 


them  commanded  the  mouth  of  the  Red  river, 
and  thus   kept  open   the   communications  of 


210    How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

the  eastern  part  of  the  Confederacy  with  its 
states  of  Texas,  Louisiana,  and  Arkansas.  To 
take  Vicksburg  would  lop  off  these  states  and 
inflict  an  irreparable  damage  upon  the  fighting 
power  of  the  Confederacy.  While  this  object 
was  so  important,  it  was  scarcely  less  important 
for  the  Federals  to  hold  Chattanooga,  and  thus 
open  the  way  into  Georgia,  while  preventing 
the  Confederates  from  recovering  any  of  the 
lost  ground  in  Tennessee.  But  Halleck  was  un 
equal  to  the  situation ;  and  wb  ile  he  failed  to 
seize  Vicksburg,  which  the  Confederates  soon 
made  one  of  the  most  formidable  strongholds  in 
the  world,  he  also  failed  to  seize  Chattanooga. 
The  great  river  fights  at  New  Orleans  and 
Memphis  showed  that  one  of  the  Confeder 
acy's  chief  sources  of  weakness  lay  in  its 
naval  inferiority;  but  before  these  fights  it 
had  seemed  for  a  moment  as  if  it  might  be 
going  to  become  formidable  on  the  water  after 
all.  The  Confederates  took  the  United  States 
frigate  Merrimac  at  Norfolk  Navy  Yard,  and 
transformed  her  into  an  ironclad  ram  with 
sloping  sides  and  huge  iron  beak.  The  United 


The  Civil  War 


211 


States  had  in  Hampton  Roads  a  fleet  of  five 
of  the  finest  wooden  war  ships  in  the  world. 
On  the  8th  of  March,  1862,  this  fleet  was 
wretchedly  defeated  by  the  Merrimac.  Their 
shot  bounded  harmlessly  from  her  sides,  while 
she  sank  one  of  the  ships  with  her  beak  and 
might  very  likely  have  sunk  them  all  had  not 
darkness  stopped  the  fight.  But  John  Erics 
son,  the  inventor  of  the  screw  propeller,  had 


212    How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

lately  completed  his  invention  of  the  turret 
ship;  and  a  few  hours  after  the  Merrimacs 
victory,  the  first  vessel  of  this  class,  the  famous 
Monitor,  appeared  in  Hampton  Roads.  Next 
day  she  had  an  obstinate  fight  with  the  Merri- 
mac  and  compelled  her  to  retire  from  the  scene, 
though  she  could  not  destroy  her.  The  imme 
diate  effect  of  this  naval  battle  was  to  render 
antiquated  all  the  most  recently  built  ships 
then  existing  in  all  the  navies  of  the  world. 
The  naval  superiority  of  the  North  was  no 
more  interrupted,  and  Federal  fleets  sup 
ported  by  small  armies  went  on  seizing  the 
chief  harbors  on  the  southern  coast  until  by 
the  end  of  the  war  they  possessed  them  all. 

The  eastern  campaigns  were  not  so  success 
ful  as  the  western,  partly  because  the  Confed 
erate  generals  were  much  abler  as  compared 
with  their  antagonists,  partly  because  military 
affairs  were  too  much  mixed  up  with  politics. 
In  advancing  upon  Richmond,  McClellan 
thought  it  wisest  to  start  by  sea  and  proceed 
up  the  bank  of  the  James  river;  but  the  gov 
ernment  wished  him  to  march  directly  across 


The  Civil  War 


213 


Virginia,  in  order  to  keep  his  army  always 
interposed  between  the  enemy  and  Washing 
ton.  McClellan's  objection  to  this  course  was 
that  the  nature  of  the  country  offered  the 
enemy  a  series  of  immensely  strong  defensive 
lines  which  could  be  carried  only  at  a  terrible 


214   How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

cost  of  life.  He  was  at  length  allowed  to 
follow  the  James  river  route,  but  his  plan 
was  hampered  in  a  way  that  ruined  it  with 
out  protecting  Washington.  Part  of  his  army 
under  McDowell  was  sent  by  the  direct  route 
to  Fredericksburg,  and  in  order  to  keep  his 
right  wing  within  cooperating  distance  of  it, 
he  was  obliged  to  move,  not  close  by  the  James 
river,  but  by  the  Chickahominy,  with  his  base 
of  supplies  on  the  York  river.  Small  Union 
forces  under  Banks  and  Fremont  were  also 
kept  in  and  about  the  Shenandoah  valley. 
These  arrangements  were  liable  to  prove  very 
disastrous  if  turned  to  account  by  skillful  ad 
versaries.  McClellan  justly  complained  that 
his  plans  were  so  interfered  with  as  never  to 
have  left  him  a  fair  chance.  At  the  same 
time  he  seems  to  have  been  very  far  indeed 
from  making  the  best  use  of  the  opportunities 
within  his  reach.  At  first  the  Confederates 
kept  him  a  month  besieging  Yorktown,  which 
they  then  abandoned,  and  retired  into  the 
neighborhood  of  Richmond.  In  advancing, 
the  need  for  keeping  his  right  wing  thrown 


The  Civil  War 


215 


out  toward  McDowell  brought  McClellan  into 
an  awkward  position  astride  of  the  Chicka- 
hominy  river,  which  by  a  sudden  rise  nearly 
severed  the  two  halves  of  the  army.  At  the 
end  of  May  the  Confederates  pounced  upon 


216    How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

one  half  at  Fair  Oaks,  and  in  a  hard-fought 
battle  it  barely  saved  itself.  Joseph  Johnston 
was  here  wounded  and  his  place  was  taken 
by  Robert  Lee,  who  at  once  called  back  the 
famous  " Stonewall"  Jackson  from  the  Shen- 
andoah  valley.  Jackson  had  totally  defeated 
the  forces  there  and  created  such  a  panic  in 
Washington  that  McDowell's  force  was  with 
drawn  for  the  defense  of  the  capital.  McClel- 
lan  now  decided  to  change  his  base  from  the 
York  river  to  the  James  and  thus  secure 
a  much  better  position.  But  before  he  had 
effected  the  change  Jackson  had  returned 
from  the  Shenandoah,  and  the  united  Con 
federate  army  hurled  itself  upon  McClellan 
in  the  hope  of  crushing  him  while  making 
the  change.  After  seven  days  of  hard  fight 
ing,  June  26  to  July  1,  with  a  loss  of  fifteen 
thousand  men  on  each  side,  Lee  was  driven 
off  and  McClellan  reached  the  James  river, 
in  a  position  where  he  was  more  dangerous 
to  Richmond  than  before. 

Meanwhile    the   scattered    forces    between 
Washington    and    Richmond    were    put    in 


The  Civil  War 


217 


command  of  John  Pope,  against  whom  Lee 
presently  sent  Jackson.  Now  Halleck,  who 
had  been  brought  to  Washington  and  made 


commander  in  chief,  stupidly  played  into  the 
enemy's  hands  by  removing  McClellan's  army 
from  the  vicinity  of  Richmond  and  bringing 
it  around  by  sea  to  unite  with  Pope.  Lee's 


218   How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

hands  being  left  quite  free  by  this  clumsy 
movement,  he  forthwith  joined  Jackson  and 
inflicted  an  ignominious  defeat  upon  Pope  at 
Bull  Run,  August  29.  The  capital  was  threat 
ened  ;  the  country  wild  with  excitement.  To 
screen  Pope,  charges  of  misconduct  and  dis 
obedience  were  brought  against  one  of  his 
ablest  officers,  Fitz  John  Porter,  who  was 
found  guilty  and  dismissed  from  the  army. 
The  charges  were  afterward  proved  to  have 
been  groundless,  and  after  a  quarter  of  a  cen 
tury,  in  spite  of  the  shameful  resistance  of 
political  partisans,  General  Porter  was  restored 
to  his  rank  in  the  army. 

After  the  overthrow  of  Pope,  the  Confed 
erates  pushed  on  into  Maryland,  and  McClellan 
again  commanded  the  Federals.  At  Antietam, 
on  the  17th  of  September,  a  great  battle  was 
fought  between  40,000  Confederates  under 
Lee  and  60,000  Federals  under  McClellan, 
who  had  about  25,000  more  troops  unused. 
Each  side  lost  about  12,500  men,  and  at 
the  end  the  advantage  was  slightly  with  the 
Federals.  Lee  retreated  slowly  into  Virginia, 


The  Civil  War  219 

followed  by  McClellan,  who  was  blamed  for 
not  accomplishing  more.  Early  in  November 
he  was  superseded  by  Burnside,  who  accom 
plished  still  less. 


— -I 

In  June,  1862,  the  great  Union  force  at 
Corinth  was  divided,  Buell's  army  marching 
eastward  to  seize  Chattanooga,  while  Grant's 
remained  about  Corinth  till  it  should  be  ready 


220   How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

to  start  for  Vicksburg.  The  campaign  was 
so  badly  managed  by  Halleck  that  the  Con 
federates,  under  Bragg,  seized  Chattanooga  be 
fore  Buell's  arrival,  and  were  thus  enabled 


w^ 

to  bring  such  pressure  to  bear  in  that  direc 
tion  that  heavy  reinforcements  had  to  be  sent 
from  Grant  to  Buell.  Thus  weakened,  Grant 
was  unable  to  advance  for  several  months. 
Meanwhile,  Bragg  took  advantage  of  his 


The  Civil  War 


221 


superior  position  to  strike  across  Tennessee  and 
invade  Kentucky  in  two  columns,  one  directed 
against  Buell's  base  at  Louisville,  the  other 
one  moving  through  Cumberland  Gap  toward 


Cincinnati.  This  bold  movement,  occurring 
simultaneously  with  Lee's  invasion  of  Mary 
land,  served  to  alarm  the  North,  but  the  Con 
federates  failed  to  recover  any  of  the  ground 


222   How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

they  had  lost.  Buell's  movements  were  made 
with  great  skill,  and  after  a  bloody  and  inde 
cisive  battle  between  parts  of  the  armies  at 
Perryville,  October  8,  Bragg  retreated  through 
Cumberland  Gap  and  made  his  way  back  to 
Chattanooga. 

While  these  things  were  going  on,  the  Con 
federate  army  in  Mississippi,  under  Van  Dorn, 
made  a  desperate  attempt  to  turn  Grant's  left 
wing  at  Corinth,  so  as  to  force  him  back  down 
the  Tennessee  river.  That  wing  was  com 
manded  by  Rosecrans,  who  defeated  the  Con 
federates  at  luka,  September  19,  and  Corinth, 
October  3  and  4,  and  foiled  their  scheme.  Soon 
after  this  Rosecrans  superseded  Buell  in  the 
command  of  the  Army  of  the  Cumberland. 
Bragg  had  advanced  to  Murfreesboro,  and  at 
Stone  river,  near  that  town,  a  battle  occurred, 
December  31  to  January  2,  in  which  40,000  men 
were  engaged  on  each  side,  and  each  lost  more 
than  10,000.  Bragg  was  obliged  to  retreat  to 
Tullahoma  ;  but  the  battle  decided  nothing 
except  that  it  is  very  hard  for  Americans  to 
defeat  Americans, — a  point  that  was  fully 


The  Civil  War  223 

illustrated  in  the  course  of  this  war.  By  this 
time  Grant  had  begun  his  first  movement 
against  Vicksburg,  and  met  with  his  first 
repulse;  his  communications  were  cut  in  his 


GENERAL  BRAGG 

rear,  and  his  ablest  lieutenant,  Sherman,  was 
defeated,  December  29,  in  an  assault  upon 
the  bluffs  north  of  the  town. 

Since    the    South    had    brought    on    this 
war   in   defense    of    slavery,   the    abolitionist 


224   How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

sentiment  had  grown  very  rapidly  at  the  North, 
and  it  had  now  become  supported  by  the 
military  needs  of  the  hour.  The  summer's 
events  had  shown  that  the  war  was  not  likely 
soon  to  be  ended ;  and  there  was  some  fear 
lest  England,  through  distress  from  the  scar 
city  of  cotton,  should  join  with  France  in  an 
attempt  to  bring  it  prematurely  to  a  close. 
It  was  also  the  clear  dictate  of  common  sense 
that  in  waging  such  a  terrible  and  costly  war 
the  earliest  opportunity  should  be  taken  of 
striking  at  the  cause  of  the  war ;  other 
wise  victory,  even  when  won,  could  not  be 
final,  but  the  seeds  of  future  disease  would 
be  left  in  the  body  politic.  The  part  which 
Mr.  Lincoln  played  at  this  crisis  was  that  of 
a  bold  and  farsighted  statesman,  and  entitles 
him  to  rank  by  the  side  of  Washington  in 
the  grateful  memories  of  the  American  peo 
ple.  The  Constitution  gave  him  no  author 
ity  to  abolish  slavery,  but  there  was  a  broad 
principle  of  military  law  that  did.  In  1836 
John  Quincy  Adams  had  declared  in  Congress 
that,  if  ever  the  slave  states  should  become 


The  Civil  War  225 

the  theater  of  war,  the  government  might 
interfere  with  slavery  in  any  way  that  mili 
tary  policy  might  suggest.  Again,  in  his 
speech  of  April  14,  1842,  he  said,  in  words 
of  prophetic  clearness :  "  Whether  the  war  be 
civil,  servile,  or  foreign,  I  lay  this  down  as 
the  law  of  nations :  I  say  that  the  military 
authority  takes  for  the  time  the  place  of 
all  municipal  institutions,  slavery  among  the 
rest.  Under  that  state  of  things,  so  far  from 
its  being  true  that  the  states  where  slavery 
exists  have  the  exclusive  management  of  the 
subject,  not  only  the  President  of  the  United 
States,  but  the  commander  of  the  army,  has 
power  to  order  the  universal  emancipation 
of  slaves."  It  was  upon  this  theory  that  Mr. 
Lincoln  acted.  In  announcing  it,  he  seized 
the  favorable  moment  when  the  tide  of  south 
ern  invasion  had  begun  to  roll  back  from 
Maryland  and  Kentucky,  and  on  September  22, 
1862,  issued  a  preliminary  proclamation  to 
the  effect  that  on  the  following  New  Year's 
Day,  in  all  such  states  as  had  not  by  that 
time  returned  to  their  allegiance,  the  slaves 


226   How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

should  be  henceforth  and  forever  free.  This 
did  not  affect  the  slaves  in  the  loyal  border 
states,  who  were  left  to  be  set  free  by  other 
measures ;  but  it  practically  settled  the  ques 
tion  that  the  reestablishment  of  the  author 
ity  of  the  United  States  government  would 
be  attended  by  the  final  abolition  of  slavery. 
For  a  moment  it  seemed  as  if  the  proclama 
tion  had  weakened  the  Republican  vote,  but 
it  really  added  incalculable  strength  to  the 
administration  •  and  as  for  foreign  interven 
tion,  it  made  it  almost  impossible,  owing  to 
Great  Britain's  attitude  toward  slavery. 

The  first  half  of  the  year  18G3  was  a  gloomy 
time,  for  it  was  not  enough  that  the  Fed 
eral  government  should  hold  its  own;  it  must 
make  progress,  and  no  progress  seemed  to  be 
made.  Grant  found  himself  baffled  all  winter 
by  the  almost  insoluble  problem  how  to  in 
vest  Vicksburg.  In  May,  in  one  of  the  most 
brilliant  campaigns  recorded  in  history,  he 
won  five  battles  and  laid  close  siege  to  that 
stronghold ;  but  the  full  measure  of  his  suc 
cess  was  not  yet  reached,  and  the  people  were 


The  Civil  War 


227 


disheartened  by  defeat  in  other  quarters.  In 
middle  Tennessee,  Bragg  and  Rosecrans  held 
each  other  in  check  till  the  middle  of  June. 


In  Virginia  the  incompetent  Burnside  had  been 
terribly  defeated  by  Lee  at  Fredericksburg, 
December  13,  with  a  loss  of  more  than  12,000 
men.  He  was  superseded  by  Joseph  Hooker, 


228   How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

from  whose  admirable  conduct  in  subordinate 
positions  great  hopes  were  now  entertained. 
But  at  Chancellorsville,  May  1  to  4,  Lee  won 
the  most  brilliant  of  all  his  victories.  With 
45,000  men,  against  Hooker's  90,000,  he  suc 
ceeded  in  maintaining  a  superiority  of  num 
bers  at  each  contested  point,  until  he  forced 
his  adversary  from  the  field.  Lee's  loss  was 
12,000 ;  Hooker's  was  16,000 ;  but  the  Con 
federates  also  lost  "  Stonewall "  Jackson,  a 
disaster  so  great  as  to  balance  the  victory. 

Lee  now  played  a  grand  but  desperate 
game,  and,  turning  Hooker's  right  flank, 
pushed  on  through  the  western  part  of  Mary 
land  into  Pennsylvania,  so  as  to  threaten 
Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  and  Washington. 
There  was  intense  alarm  at  the  North.  The 
Army  of  the  Potomac  was  moved  northward 
to  cover  the  cities  just  mentioned,  and  Hooker 
was  superseded  in  the  command  by  Meade. 
The  two  armies  came  into  collision  at  Gettys 
burg,  where  in  a  tremendous  battle,  July  1 
to  3,  Meade  at  length  succeeded  in  defeat 
ing  Lee.  About  82,000  Federals  and  74,000 


("STONEWALL"  JACKSON) 
229 


TJie  Civil  War  231 


Confederates  were  engaged ;  the  loss  of  the 
former  was  24,000 ;  of  the  latter,  30,000.  That 
is,  out  of  156,000  men  the  loss  was  54,000,  or 
more  than  one  third ;  so  that  the  battle  of 
Gettysburg  was  one  of  the  greatest  of  modern 
times.  It  marked  the  turning  point  of  the 
Civil  War,  but  it  was  not  in  itself  a  deci 
sive  victor}7,  like  Blenheim  or  Waterloo.  Lee 
moved  slowly  back  to  his  old  position  on  the 
Rapidan,  where  he  and  Meade  held  each  other 
in  check  until  the  following  spring. 


232   Hoiv  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

On  the  next  day  after  Gettysburg  a  much 
more  decisive  triumph  was  won  by  Grant  in 
the  capture  of  Vicksburg  with  its  whole  army 
of  defense,  nearly  thirty-two  thousand  strong. 
This  was  the  heaviest  blow  that  had  yet  been 
dealt  to  the  Confederacy;  its  whole  western 
zone  was  now  virtually  conquered,  and  it 
became  possible  to  concentrate  greater  forces 
against  its  middle  and  eastern  zones.  The 
news  of  Gettysburg  and  Vicksburg  made  the 
Fourth  of  July,  1863,  a  day  of  rejoicing  at 
the  North,  albeit  of  mourning  in  thousands 
of  bereaved  homes.  The  next  note  of  victory 
was  sounded  on  Thanksgiving  Day. 

Late  in  June  Rosecrans  began  a  series 
of  skillful  movements  against  Bragg,  which 
caused  him  to  fall  back  into  Chattanooga. 
Early  in  September,  by  moving  against  his 
communications,  Rosecrans  forced  him  to 
evacuate  that  place ;  but  in  maneuvering 
among  the  mountains  the  Union  general 
suddenly  discovered  that  he  had  misinter 
preted  his  adversary's  movements  and  thus 
had  dangerously  extended  his  own  lines. 


The  Civil  War 


233 


While  thereupon  engaged  in  concentrating 
his  forces  upon  Chattanooga,  he  was  attacked 
by  Bragg,  who  had  meanwhile  been  heavily 
reenforced  from  Virginia.  A  terrible  battle 
was  fought  September  19  and  20,  in  Chicka- 
mauga  valley,  between  55,000  Federals  and 
70,000  Confederates,  in  which  each  side  lost 
one  third  of  its  number.  After  an  extraordi 
nary  series  of  mishaps  had  led  to  the  total 
rout  of  the  Federal  right  wing,  the  army  was 
saved  by  the  magnificent  skill  and  bravery  of 


234    How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

Thomas,  who  commanded  on  the  left.  Rose- 
crans  occupied  Chattanooga,  but  in  such  a 
plight  that  he  seemed  in  danger  of  losing 
it  and  his  army  also.  He  was  besieged  by 
Bragg,  who  occupied  the  strong  positions 
of  Lookout  Mountain  and  Missionary  Ridge, 
commanding  the  town.  In  October  Rose- 
crans  was  superseded  by  Thomas,  and  Grant 
was  put  in  command  of  all  the  armies  be 
tween  the  Mississippi  and  the  Alleghenies. 
Reinforcements  under  Hooker  were  sent  from 
Virginia,  and  Sherman  came  up  from  Vicks- 
burg  with  a  large  part  of  the  Army  of  Ten 
nessee.  In  the  brilliant  battle  of  Chattanooga, 
November  24  and  25,  the  Confederates  were 
totally  defeated,  and  Grant  won  another  prize 
of  scarcely  less  value  than  Vicksburg.  The 
area  of  the  Confederacy  was  now  virtually  cut 
down  to  the  four  states  of  Georgia,  the  Caro- 
linas,  and  Virginia. 

In  March,  1864,  Grant  superseded  Halleck 
as  commander  in  chief,  with  the  rank  of  lieu 
tenant  general.  Grant  now  gave  his  personal 
supervision  to  the  Army  of  the  Potomac,  while 


The  Civil  War 


235 


retaining  Meade  in  immediate  command. 
After  the  battle  of  Chattanooga  the  defeated 
Confederates  had  retired  to  Dalton,  in  Georgia, 
where  Bragg  was  superseded  by  Johnston. 
The  Union  arrny  opposed  to  Johnston  was 
commanded  by  Sherman,  and  early  in  May  a 
simultaneous  forward  movement  was  begun 
in  Georgia  and  in  Virginia. 

Grant  had  won  his  great  victories  at  Yicks- 
burg  and  Chattanooga  not  by  hard  pounding 


236    How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

so  much  as  by  skillful  strategy.  Twice 
at  Vicksburg  he  had  tried  the  hammering 
process  without  success.  In  Virginia,  having 
an  immense  superiority  in  numbers  (122,000 
against  62,000),  he  at  first  tried  to  crush  Lee 
by  simple  hammering.  In  pursuing  the  direct 
route  through  Fredericksburg  to  Richmond, 
he  encountered  a  series  of  strong  defensive 
positions  of  which  Lee  availed  himself  with 
consummate  skill.  In  assaulting  these  posi 
tions,  Grant  generally  failed ;  but  his  supe 
riority  in  numbers  enabled  him  to  operate 
against  Lee's  right  flank  and  slowly  push  him 
back  to  the  Chickahominy.  After  a  month 
of  this  terrible  warfare,  including  the  battles 
of  the  Wilderness,  Spottsylvania,  and  Cold 
Harbor,  Grant  had  lost  sixty-four  thousand 
men,  or  more  than  the  whole  army  with 
which  Lee  started.  Having  now  reached  the 
Chickahominy,  and  finding  it  impossible  to 
break  through  Lee's  lines  of  defense,  Grant 
changed  his  plan  of  campaign  and  swung 
round  upon  Petersburg  to  operate  against 
the  southern  communications  of  Richmond. 


237 


The  Civil  War  239 

Here  Lee  succeeded  in  holding  him  at  bay 
for  nine  months,  with  forces  constantly  weak 
ening.  Grant's  losses  could  be  repaired,  but 
Lee's  could  not. 

The  North,  indeed,  was  still  rich  and  nour 
ishing,  while  the  Confederacy  was  at  the  end 
of  its  resources.  The  food  supply  from  the 
West  was  cut  off,  clothes  and  tools  were  giv 
ing  out,  and  the  blockade  was  stricter  than 
ever.  Farragut's  great  victory  in  Mobile  bay 
closed  up  that  entrance  in  August,  while  on 
the  ocean  the  chief  Confederate  cruisers  were 
captured.  One  of  these  cases,  the  destruction 
of  the  famous  Alabama  in  June  by  the  Kear- 
sarge,  off  the  coast  of  France,  was  especially 
interesting,  as  the  Alabama  was  British-built 
and  manned  by  British  seamen  and  gunners, 
and  the  contest  seemed  to  teach  a  similar 
lesson  to  those  of  1812.  The  guns  of  the 
Kearsarge  sent  her  to  the  bottom  in  an  hour. 

Sherman's  campaign  in  Georgia  revealed 
the  exhausted  condition  of  the  Confederacy. 
He  advanced  from  Chattanooga  with  100,000 
men  against  Johnston's  weaker  force  of  75,000, 


240   How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

and  by  a  series  of  skillful  flank  movements 
pushed  him  back  upon  Atlanta  after  three  bat 
tles, —  at  Resaca,  Dallas,  and  Kenesaw  Moun 
tain, —  in  which  the  Federals  lost  altogether 
about  14,000  men  and  the  Confederates  about 
11,000.  Johnston's  conduct  had  been  ex 
tremely  skillful,  but  he  was  now  removed  from 
command.  His  successor,  Hood,  believed  in 
hard  blows,  and  soon  received  some  in  two 
fierce  sorties  from  Atlanta,  July  22  and  28,  in 
which  he  lost  13,000  men  to  Sherman's  4000. 
On  September  2  Sherman  took  Atlanta.  Hood 
now  made  a  fatal  mistake.  He  moved  north 
westward  by  Tuscumbia  and  Florence  into  mid 
dle  Tennessee,  thinking  that  Sherman  would 
follow  him.  But  instead  Sherman  divided  his 
army,  sending  back  part  of  it  under  Thomas 
to  deal  with  Hood,  while  he  himself  prepared 
to  continue  his  advance  through  Georgia. 
Hood,  moving  northward,  was  first  defeated 
at  Franklin,  November  30,  with  heavy  loss,  by 
Schofield.  Then  Hood  encountered  Thomas 
in  a  great  battle  at  Nashville,  December  15 
and  16.  Hood  had  about  44,000  men,  Thomas 


The  Civil  War  241 


about  56,000.  The  Federals  lost  about  3000 
men ;  the  Confederates  were  totally  defeated, 
with  a  loss  of  15,000,  and  in  the  pursuit  which 
followed,  their  army  ceased  to  exist.  Of  all 
the  battles  fought  in  the  course  of  the  war, 
this  was  the  most  completely  a  victory.  Mean 
while  Sherman  started  from  Atlanta  about 
the  middle  of  November,  with  60,000  men 
marched  unopposed  through  Georgia  to  the 
seacoast,  and  captured  Savannah  December  21. 
Throughout  the  North  congratulations  over 


242   How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

these  remarkable  campaigns  mingled  with  the 
Christmas  greetings. 

The  foregoing  survey  shows. the  Union  arms 
as  having  advanced  from  the  beginning  with 
remarkable  steadiness  and  rapidity  toward  the 
overthrow  of  the  Confederacy;  but  very  few 
people  were  able  to  see  this  until  after  it  was 
all  over.  These  four  years  seemed  very  long 
while  they  were  passing,  and  as  people  were 
always  hoping  for  a  colossal  blow  which  would 
at  once  end  the  war,  they  failed  to  take  ac 
count  of  the  steady  progress  which  was  really 
being  made.  Besides  this,  the  operations  near 
Washington  naturally  assumed  more  promi 
nence  in  people's  eyes  than  the  western  opera 
tions,  and  here  the  prolonged  resistance  of  Lee 
served  further  to  confuse  the  popular  estimate 
of  passing  events.  Lee's  defensive  warfare 
was  one  of  the  most  wonderful  things  in 
history,  and  imposed  upon  people's  imagina 
tions  till  they  were  almost  ready  to  forget 
that  even  he  could  not  hold  out  indefinitely, 
without  a  Confederacy  behind  him.  Even  in 
the  summer  of  1864  Lee  was  able  to  alarm 


The  Civil  War 


243 


the  government  at  Washington  by  sending 
the  gallant  Early  on  an  expedition  down  the 
Shenandoah  valley,  like  that  which  Jackson 
had  conducted  two  years  before.  In  a  very 


able  and  romantic  campaign  Sheridan  com 
pletely  defeated  Early ;  but  the  impression 
produced  upon  the  northern  mind  was  great, 
conventions  held  in  the 


In  the  nominating 


244   How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

course  of  the  summer,  between  the  battle  of 
Spottsylvania  and  Sherman's  capture  of  At 
lanta,  the  Republicans  nominated  Lincoln  for 
reelection;  but  some  radical  Republicans,  who 
condemned  his  measures  as  too  feeble,  nom 
inated  Fremont,  and  the  Democrats,  with 
scarcely  less  absurdity,  in  nominating  McClel- 
lan,  demanded  that  peace  should  be  made  on 
the  ground  that  the  war  was  a  failure.  Before 
the  election  Fremont  withdrew  his  name. 
McClellan  obtained  twenty-one  electoral  votes 
from  New  Jersey,  Delaware,  and  Kentucky; 
the  two  hundred  and  twelve  votes  of  the  other 
states  not  in  rebellion  were  given  to  Lincoln. 

Early  in  1865  the  Confederacy  fell  so  sud 
denly  that  it  seemed  like  the  collapse  of  a 
bubble.  The  year  opened  auspiciously  with 
Schofield's  capture  of  Wilmington,  the  last 
Confederate  port  except  Charleston,  which 
fell  as  soon  as  Sherman's  northward  march 
began.  He  advanced  through  the  Carolinas, 
partly  over  the  same  route  taken  by  Cornwallis 
in  1781.  From  various  quarters  Johnston  con 
trived  to  gather  forty  thousand  men  to  oppose 


The  Civil  War  245 

him,  but  was  defeated  near  Goldsborough, 
March  19.  By  this  time  Lee  had  made  up 
his  mind  to  abandon  Petersburg  and  Rich 
mond,  move  by  way  of  Danville,  and  effect 
a  junction  with  Johnston.  To  prevent  such  a 
concentration  of  forces  Grant  moved  Sheri 
dan  southwesterly  to  Five  Forks,  upon  Lee's 
right  or  southern  flank.  Here  Sheridan  in 
the  last  battle  of  the  war  secured  his  position. 
To  avoid  being  outflanked  Lee  was  forced  to 
lengthen  his  line,  already  too  weak ;  and  now 
Grant  with  a  hundred  thousand  men  broke 
through  it.  The  Confederate  government  fled 
from  Richmond,  and  Lee,  driven  westward, 
was  headed  off  at  Appomattox  Courthouse, 
where  on  April  9  he  surrendered  his  army, 
now  reduced  to  twenty-six  thousand  men. 
A  fortnight  later  Johnston  surrendered  to 
Sherman  and  the  war  was  ended.  Never 
was  an  overthrow  more  complete  and  final 
than  that  of  the  Confederacy,  and  never  had 
soldiers  fought  more  gallantly  than  those  who 
were  now  surrendered.  All  were  at  once  set 
free  on  parole,  and  no  dismal  executions  for 


246    How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 

treason  were  allowed  to  sully  the  glorious 
triumph  of  the  United  States.  The  public 
rejoicings  were  clouded  by  the  death  of  the 
wise  and  gentle  Lincoln,  struck  down  in  the 
moment  of  victory  by  the  hand  of  a  wretched 
assassin.  His  name  will  forever  be  remem 
bered  side  by  side  with  the  name  of  Wash 
ington;  for  he  was  in  many  wrays  the  second 
founder  of  the  United  States.  The  work  of 
unparalleled  glory  begun  by  Washington  —  of 
founding  a  nation  so  peaceful  and  so  mighty 
that,  through  its  own  peaceful  development, 
it  might  by  and  by  sow  broadcast  over  the 
world  the  seeds  of  permanent  peace  among 
men  —  was  brought  to  its  next  stage  of  com 
pletion  by  Lincoln.  So  long  as  the  chief 
source  of  contention  remained,  the  future 
might  well  seem  doubtful.  The  work  of 
1776  first  came  to  full  fruition  in  1865;  and 
when  this  is  duly  considered,  it  reveals  the 
moral  grandeur  of  American  history  and  sug 
gests  lessons  which  we  shall  all  do  well  to 
learn. 


INDEX 


Abolitionists,  132 

Adams,  Charles  Francis,  156 

Adams,  John,  23,  28 

Adams,  John  Quincy,  77,  107; 
elected  President,  122;  elect 
ed  to  the  House  of  Repre 
sentatives,  132 ;  opinions  of, 
on  slavery,  224 

African  slave  trade,  renewal 
of,  173 

Alabama,  239 

Alabama  admitted  to  the 
Union,  112 

Alaska,  141 

Alien  and  sedition  acts,  31 

Antietam,  battle  of,  218 

Anti-Federalists,  18 

"Anti-Nebraska  Men,"  109 

Appomattox  Courthouse,  245 

Argus,  85 

Arkansas  admitted  to  the 
Union,  119 

Army  of  the  Cumberland,  203 

Army  of  the  Potomac,  200,  228 

Army  of  the  Tennessee,  204 

Atlanta,  240 

Bainbridge,  Captain,  83 
Baltimore,  100,  195 
Bancroft,  George,  131 


Banks,  General,  214 
Barclay,  Commodore,  94 
Battle  of  Autietam,  218;  Bu- 
ena  Vista,    152;    Bull  Run 
(1st),   199;  Bull  Run  (2d), 
218;  Chancellorsville,  228; 
Chattanooga,  234;  Chicka- 
mauga,  233  ;  Chippewa,  94  ; 
Cold  Harbor,  236  ;  Corinth, 
222  ;  Dallas,  240;  Fair  Oaks, 
216;  Five  Forks,  245;  Fort 
Erie,    95;    Franklin,    240; 
Fredericksburg,    227;    Get 
tysburg,  228;  Goldsborough, 
245;  Kenesaw  Mountain, 
240;   Lundy's  Lane,   94; 
Murfreesboro,    222;    Nash 
ville,  240  ;  Pea  Ridge,  202  ; 
Perry  ville,  222;  Resaca,  240; 
San  Jacinto,  144;  Seven 
Days,   216  ;     Shiloh,    207 ; 
Spottsylvania,    236 ;    Stone 
River,  222  ;  Tippecanoe,  78  ; 
Wilderness,  236;    Wilson's 
Creek,  202 
Bell,  John,  179 
Benton,  Thomas,  121,  157 
Berlin  and  Milan  decrees,  67, 77 
Rujltw  Papers,  154 
Birney,  James,  147 


247 


248  How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 


Blair,  Francis,  202 
Blockade   in    the   Civil  War, 

200,  239 
Bonaparte,  Napoleon,  28,  48, 

57,  77,  99 

Bragg,  220,  227,  232;  super 
seded  by  Johnston,  235 
Breckenridge,  John,  177 
Brock,  General,  92 
Broke,  Captain,  84 
Brooks,  Preston,  171 
Brougham,  Lord,  50 
Brown,  Jacob,  94 
Brown,  John,  175 
Bryant,  William  Cullen,  181 
Buchanan,  elected  President, 

172;     attitude    of,    toward 

secession,  191 
Buell,  General,  203,  207,  219; 

superseded  by  Rosecrans,  222 
Buena  Vista,  152 
Bull  Run,  199,  218 
Burnside,  supersedes  McClel- 

lan,  219;  defeated  at  Fred- 

ericksburg,  227 ;  superseded 

by  Hooker,  227 
Burr,  Aaron,  50,  64,  99 ;  duel 

of,  with  Hamilton,  65 ;  tried 

for  treason,  66 
Burrows,  Lieutenant,  85 

Calhoun,  J.  C.,  78,  143,151 
California,  152,  158  ;  admitted 

to  the  Union,  159 
Canada,  invasion  of,  92,  94 
Cass,  Louis,  156 


Chancellorsville,  battle  of,  228 
Charleston,  244 
Chase,  165 
Chase,  Judge,  55 
Chattanooga,  208,  220.  234 
Chesapeake,  69,  84 
Chickainauga  valley,  233 
Chihuahua,  152 
Chippewa,  battle  of,  94 
Clay,  Henry,  elected  Speaker 
of  the  House,  78 ;  author  of 
Missouri  Compromise,  116 ; 
candidate  for  President,  122  ; 
candidate    a    second    time, 
147  ;  death  of,  164 
Clinton,  De  Witt,  80 
Clinton,   George,  Vice   Presi 
dent,  64 ;  reflected,  75 
Cold  Harbor,  battle  of,  236 
Compromise  of  1850,  159,  166 
Compromise  Tariff,  129 
Condition  of  Americain  1789,5 
Condition  of  the  South  in  1860, 

184 

Confederacy,  collapse  of,  244 
"  Confederate  States  of  Amer 
ica,"  191 
Constellation,  27 
Constitution,  81,  83,  86 
Constitution   adopted,  18; 

twelfth  amendment  to,  52 
Cooper,  James  Fenimore,  131 
"Copperheads,"  186 
Corinth,  208 ;  battle  of,  222 
Cotton  gin,  invention  of,  114 
Crawford,  William,  78,  122 


Index 


249 


Creek  Indians,  96 
Cuba,  166 

Curtis,  Benjamin,  174 
Curtis,  General,  202 

Dallas,  240 

Davis,  Jefferson,  165  ;  chosen 
President  of  the  Confeder 
ate  States,  191 

Decatur,  82 

Democrats,  19,  123 

Detroit,  23,  92,  94 

Doniphan,  152 

"Doughfaces,"  159 

Douglas,  Stephen,  166, 175, 178 

Dred  Scott  case,  174 

Early,  General,  243 
Emancipation,  225 
Embargo  act,  70 
Emerson,  Ralph  Waldo,  131 
Emigration,  130 
End  of  the  Civil  War,  245 
England,  trouble  with,  67,  200 
Enterprise,  85 
"Era  of  good  feeling,"  108 
Ericsson,  John,  130,  211 
Erie  canal,  119 
Essex,  81,  86 
Ewell,  General,  198 
Explorations    of    Lewis    and 
Clark,  59,  142 

Fair  Oaks,  battle  of,  216 
Farragut,  208 
Federal  Constitution,  8 


Federalists,  18 

"Fifty-four  forty  or  fight," 
143 

Filibustering  expeditions,  166 

Fillmore,  Millard,  becomes 
President,  159 

Five  Forks,  battle  of,  245 

Florida  sold  to  United  States, 
108 

Fort  Donelson,  203,  204 

Fort  Erie,  battle  of,  95 

Fort  Henry,  203,  204 

Fort  Meigs,  93 

Fort  Minims,  massacre  at, 
96 

Fort  Sumter,  191 

Fort  Wayne,  73 

France,  trouble  with,  24 

Franklin,  battle  of,  240 

Fredericksburg,  battle  of,  227 

Free-soil  party,  156 

Fremont,  conquers  California, 
152;  nominated  for  Presi 
dent,  171;  in  the  Shenan- 
doah  valley,  214  ;  nominated 
for  President,  244 

French  Revolution,  20 

Fugitive  slave  law,  159 

Fulton,  Robert,  110 

Garrison,  William  Lloyd,  132 
Genet,  "Citizen,"  21 
Gettysburg,  battle  of,  228 
Gold  discovered  in  California, 

158 
Goldsborough,  battle  of,  245 


250   How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 


Grant,  in  Kentucky,  203 ;  in 
Tennessee,  204;  at  Shiloh, 
207  ;  near  Corinth,  219 ;  bril 
liant  campaign  of,  226 ;  cap 
tures  Vicksburg,  232  ;  super 
sedes  Halleck,  234 ;  advances 
on  Richmond,  236  ;  at  Appo- 
mattox,  245 

Guerriere,  81 

"Hail  Columbia,"  27 

Hale,  John,  164 

Halleck,  General,  207,  208, 
210,  217;  superseded  by 
Grant,  234 

Hamilton,  Alexander,  Secre 
tary  of  the  Treasury,  11,  12  ; 
financial  measures  of,  13, 
18 ;  leader  of  the  Federalists, 
20 ;  stoned  on  the  street,  23 ; 
dislike  between  Adams  and, 
28 ;  duel  of,  with  Burr,  65 

Hampton  Roads,  212 

Harmar,  General,  17 

Harper's  Ferry,  176 

Harrison,  General,  78,  92,  94  ; 
elected  President,  140;  death 
of,  141 

Hartford  Convention,  102 

Hawthorne,  Nathaniel,  131 

Holmes,  Oliver  Wendell,  131 

"Holy  Alliance,1'  108 

Hood  supersedes  Bragg,  240 

Hooker,  Joseph,  supersedes 
Burnside,  227  ;  superseded 
by  Meade,  228 


Hornet,  83,  87 
Houston,  General,  144 
Hull,  Isaac,  81 
Hull,  William,  92 

Illinois  admitted  to  the  Union, 
112 

Impressment  of  American  sea 
men,  23,  68,  103 

Indian  Territory,  165 

Indiana  admitted  to  the  Union, 
112 

Indians,  trouble  with,  17,  96, 
108 

Iowa  admitted  to  the  Union, 
158 

Irving,  Washington,  131 

Island  Number  10,  208 

luka,  222 

Jackson,  Andrew,  subdues  the 
Creeks,  99 ;  defeats  the  Brit 
ish  at  New  Orleans,  101 ;  con 
quers  the  Seminoles,  108; 
popular  hero  of  the  West, 
121,  135;  candidate  for 
President,  122 ;  elected  Pres 
ident,  123  ;  character  of,  135 

Jackson,  "Stonewall,"  198, 
216,  217  ;  death  of,  228 

Jay's  treaty,  23,  24 

Jefferson,  Thomas,  Secretary 
of  State,  14;  leader  of  Re 
publican  party,  19 ;  becomes 
Vice  President,  23  ;  elected 
President,  51 ,  inauguration 


Index 


251 


of,  52  ;  second  administra 
tion  of,  04 

Johnson,  Andrew,  appointed 
military  governor  of  Ten 
nessee,  207 

Johnston,  Joseph,  197,  199, 
216;  supersedes  Bragg, 
235;  superseded  by  Hood, 
240;  defeated  near  Goldsbor- 
ough,  245  ;  surrenders,  245 

Johnston,  Sidney,  203, 204, 207 

Jones,  Paul,  82 

Kansas-Nebraska  bill,  168 

Kearney,  152 

Kearsarge,  239 

Kenesaw  Mountain,  240 

Kentucky  secured  to  the 
Union,  207 

Kentucky  and  Virginia  reso 
lutions,  32 

King,  Rufus,  64,  75,  107 

Lawrence,  Captain,  83 

Lear,  Tobias,  42 

Lee,  Robert  E.,  197,  216;  at 
Bull  Run,  218  ;  at  Antietam, 
218;  invades  Mary  land,  221; 
at  Chancellorsville,  228;  de 
feated  at  Gettysburg,  228; 
in  the  Wilderness,  236; 
military  skill  of,  242 ;  sur 
renders,  245 

Lewis,  Lawrence,  38,  47 

Lewis  and  Clark  expedition, 
59,  142 


Lincoln,  Abraham,  elected 
President,   179;   sends  fleet 
to  Su inter,  191;  calls  for 
troops,  192 ;  as  a  statesman, 
224;   issues  preliminary 
proclamation  of  emancipa 
tion,    225;    reflected,   244; 
death  of,  246 
Literature,  growth  of,  131 
Longfellow,  Henry  Wads- 
worth,  131 
Louisiana  admitted  to  the 

Union,  111 

Louisiana  Purchase,  57 
Lowell,  James  Russell,  154 
Lundy's  Lane,  battle  of,  94 
Lyon,  Nathaniel,  202 

McClellan,  drives  Confeder 
ates  from  West  Virginia, 
198  ;  supersedes  Scott,  200  ; 
advances  on  Richmond, 
212 ;  in  Seven  Days'  battles, 
216;  at  Antietam,  218; 
superseded  by  Burns  id  e, 
219;  nominated  for  Presi 
dent,  244 

Macdonough,  Commodore,  96 

McDowell,  198,  214,  216 

McLean,  John,  174 

Madison  elected  President,  75; 
reflected,  81 ;  pardons  Hull, 
92 

Maine  admitted  to  the  Union, 
112 

Marcy,  William,  136 


252   How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 


Marshall,  Chief  Justice,  55 

Mason  and  Slidell,  201 

Massacre  at  Fort  Minims,  96 

Meade  supersedes  Hooker,  228 

Memphis,  208 

Merrimac,  210 

Mexican  War,  152 

Michigan,  92  ;  admitted  to  the 
Union,  119 

Mississippi  admitted  to  the 
Union,  112 

Missouri,  admitted  to  the 
Union,  112;  saved  to  the 
Union,  202 

Missouri  Compromise,  116 

Monitor,  212 

Monroe,  James,  minister  to 
France,  24;  elected  Presi 
dent,  107  ;  reflected,  107 

Monroe  doctrine,  109 

Morris,  Gouverneur,  24 

Murfreesboro,  battle  of,  222 

Napoleon  Bonaparte,  28,  48, 

57,  77,  99 
Napoleon  III,  186 
Nashville,  battle  of,  240 
National  Bank,  124,  137,  138, 

141 

"National  Republicans,"  12-3 
Naval  victories,  81 
Navy,  American,  in  1812,  88 
New  Mexico,  152,  159 
New    Orleans,    expedition 

against,    100;   captured  by 

Farragut,  208 


New  York,  119 

Non-intercourse   act,    71 ;   re 
pealed,  77 
Nullification,  33,  128 

Ohio  admitted  to  the  Union,  56 

Old  Ironsides,  87 

Orders  in  council,  67;  revoked, 

78 
Oregon,  60,  142 

Pakenham,  Sir  Edward,  101 

Panic,  commercial,  138 

Parker,  Theodore,  163 

Parties,  rise  of,  18 

Pea  Ridge,  battle  of,  202 

Peace  Democrats,  186 

Peacock,  86,  87 

Peacock  (British  brig),  83 

Perry,  Commodore,  94 

Perryville,  battle  of,  222 

Petersburg,  236 

Phillips,  Wendell,  163 

Pierce,  Franklin,  elected  Presi 
dent,  164 

Pinckney,  Cotesworth,  24,  50, 
64,  75 

Polk,  General,  202,  204 

Polk,  James  K.,  147;  elected 
President,  148 

Pope,  General,  208,  217;  de 
feated  at  Bull  Run,  218 

Population  of  United  States  in 
1860,  183 

Port  Royal,  200 

Porter,  Captain,  81,  86 


Index 


253 


Porter,  Fitz  John,  General,  218 
Prescott,  W.  H.,  131 
President,  78 
Privateers,  American,  88 
Proctor,  General,  93,  94 
Protection,  policy  of,  15,  124 

Queenstown  Heights,  92 

Railroad,  first  American,  129 
Reform  movements,  132 
Republicans,  19,  107,  121, 169, 

180 

Resaca,  battle  of,  240 
Richmond,  capital  of  the  Con 
federate  States,  197  ;  aban 
doned  by  Confederate  gov 
ernment,  245 

Right  of  search,  68,  78, 103, 201 
Rosecrans,  supersedes  Buell, 
222 ;  in  Tennessee,  227  ;  at 
Chattanooga,    232 ;    super 
seded  by  Thomas,  234 
Rotation  in  office,  136 

St.  Clair,  General,  18 

San  Jacinto,  battle  of,  144 

Santa  Anna,  144 

Savannah,  241 

Schofield,  General,  240,  244 

Scott,   General   Winfield,   94, 

152,  164,  198 
Screw  propeller,  130 
Secession,  threatened,   71; 

ordinances  of,  188 
Seminole  Indian  troubles,  108 


Seward,  165 
Shannon,  84 

Shenandoah  valley,  216,  243 
Sheridan,  General,  243 
Sherman,  General,  223,   234, 
235,  239 ;  march  of,  to  the 
sea,  241;  northward  march 
of,  244 

Shiloh,  battle  of,  207 
Slave  trade,  173 
Slavery,  growth  of,  112  ;  oppo 
sition  to,  155 
Slidell,  201 

South,  condition  of,  in  1860, 184 
Spoils  system,  136 
Spottsylvania,  battle  of,  236 
Squatter  sovereignty,  168 
State  debts,  assumption  of,  14 
Steamboat,  invention  of,  110 
Stephens,  Alexander,  191 
Stewart,  Captain,  86 
Stowe,  Harriet  Beecher,  60 
Subtreasury  system,  138 
Sumner,  Charles,  164;  attack 

on,  171 

Sumter,  Fort,  191 
Supreme  Court,  32,  55 

Talleyrand,  25,  27 

Tariff,  124,  128 

Taxation  of  whisky,  16 

Taylor,  General,  152 ;  elected 
President,  156 ;  death  of,  159 

Tecumseh,  attacks  northwest 
ern  settlements,  78 ;  death 
of,  94 


254   How  the  United  States  became  a  Nation 


Texas,  144 ;  admitted  to  the 
Union,  151 

Thomas,  General,  204  ;  super 
sedes  Rosecrans,  234 ;  at 
Nashville,  240 

Tippecanoe,  battle  of,  78 

Treaty,  of  Ghent,  102;  with 
Mexico,  154 

Trent,  201 

Tripolitan  War,  GO 

Troops  called  for  by  President 
Lincoln,  192 

Truxtun,  Captain,  27 

Twelfth  amendment,  52 

Tyler  becomes  President,  141 

Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,  160 

United  States,  82 

United   States,  conditions  in, 

in  1789,  5;  growth  of,  110, 

129,  142,  183 
Utah,  159 

Valcour  Island,  96 

Van  Buren,  Martin,  elected 
President,  138  ;  second  nom 
ination,  156 

Van  Dorn,  222 

Vans  Murray.  27 

Vicksburg,  208,  210  ;  captured 
by  Grant,  232 

Wabash  river,  17,  23 
War  of  1812,  declaration  of, 
78 ;  opposition  to,  79 


War  with  Mexico,  152 

Washington,  George,  11  ;  sup 
presses  insurrection,  16; 
national  policy  of,  20 ;  re 
fuses  a  third  term,  23  ;  ap 
pointed  to  the  command  of 
army,  26  ;  at  Mount  Vernon, 
34  ;  death  of,  44  ;  character 
of,  48 

Washington,  selected  as  capi 
tal,  14  ;  condition  of,  in  1801, 
52  ;  public  buildings  burned 
at,  100 

Wasp,  82,  86 

Wayne,  General,  18 

Webster,  Daniel,  131,  164 

West,  the  young.  120;  migra 
tion  to  the,  119, 142,  158, 169 

West  Virginia,  196 

Whigs,  124,  164 

Whisky  insurrection,  16 

Whitney,  Eli,  113 

Whittier,  John  Greenleaf,  131 

Wilderness,  battle  of  the,  236 

Wilkes,  Captain,  201 

Wilmington,  244 

Wilmot  Proviso,  156,  171 

Wilson's  Creek,  battle  of,  202 

Winchester,  General,  92 

Wisconsin  admitted  to  the 
Union,  158 

X.Y.Z.  dispatches,  26 
Yorktown,  214 


GENERAL  LIBRARY 
UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA— BERKELEY 

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